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Bibliography

Gender inequality in Japan

Eto, M. (2010). Women and Representation in Japan: THE CAUSES OF POLITICAL INEQUALITY. International Feminist Journal of Politics, 12(2), 177–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461674100366522

Kamo, Y., & Warner, R. L. (1997). The effect of children’s sex on parent’s gender-role attitudes: An extension using Japanese data. Journal of Comparative Family Studies; Calgary, 28(3), 204–219.

Yoshioka, E. (2016). Suicide, Socio-economic Inequalities, Gender, and Psychiatric Disorders Commentary: Educational Levels and Risk of Suicide in Japan: The Japan Public Health Center Study (JPHC) Cohort I. Journal of Epidemiology, 26(6), 277–278. https://doi.org/10.2188/jea.JE20160082

Nemoto, K. (2013). Long Working Hours and the Corporate Gender Divide in Japan. Gender, Work & Organization, 20(5), 512–527. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0432.2012.00599.x

Smith, R. J. (1987). Gender Inequality in Contemporary Japan. Journal of Japanese Studies, 13(1), 1–25. JSTOR. https://doi.org/10.2307/132584

Marshall, R. (2017). Gender inequality and family formation in Japan. Asian Anthropology. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1683478X.2017.1374606

Hara, J. (2011). An Overview of Social Stratification and Inequality Study in Japan: Towards a “Mature” Society Perspective. Asian Journal of Social Science, 39(1), 9–29. JSTOR. Corrections and Additions

(The old lead) Despite being a highly developed society, Japan has high levels of gender inequality. In 2015, the country had a per-capita income of US$38,883, ranking 22nd of the 188 countries, and #17 in the Human Development Index.

old and incorrect Its Gender Inequality Index rank was 19th on the 2019 report, which is relatively low for developed nations. added citation http://hdr.undp.org/en/indicators/68606

no change necessary The disparity between income and gender inequality is due to the persistence of gender norms in Japanese society. Gender-based inequality manifests in various aspects of social life in Japan, from the family to political representation, playing particular roles in employment opportunities and income, and occurs largely as a result of differing gender roles in traditional and modern Japanese society. (The old paragraph) The Gender Inequality Index (GII) has Japan ranked as 21st out of 188 countries as of 2016. The GII measures three things: reproductive health, empowerment and the labor market. For this index, where 0 represents full equality and 1 is total inequality, Japan places at 0.116.

(Old and incorrect) Japan ranked as 19th out of 188 countries in 2019. added citation http://hdr.undp.org/en/indicators/68606

(Old and no change necessary)The Gender Inequality Index confirms that Japan has room for improvement. The country still lacks female voices in parliament, compared to similar Asian countries: Japan ranks as fourth lowest within the 51 highest developed countries. In terms of women in the labor force, Japan has the sixth lowest score. However, Japan ranks fairly well when it comes to adolescent birth rate and the percentage of the female population with some secondary education. Overall, the country is ranked among the countries with the lowest GII because of its high scores in reproductive healthcare and women's education levels.

(The old Paragraph and no change necessary) The gender gap in employment and wages is becoming an increasingly serious problem, with Japan being the fastest aging country in the OECD. In order to maintain its economy, the government must take measures to maintain productivity. While women hold 45.4 percent of Japan's bachelor degrees, they only make up 18.2 percent of the labor force, and only 2.1 percent of employers are women.

There are several theories explaining women's low workforce participation. One points to the importance of family in Japanese society. This emphasis on the male-breadwinner model persists because government tax policies and company benefits are not as beneficial for women, especially women with families. There is a government policy that guarantees healthcare and pensions for spouses who make less than 1.3 million yen, or about $11,500, thus discouraging couples from both working. Japanese companies have extensive benefits for men because they are expected to provide for their families at home. Job salaries and benefits are also heavily influenced by tenure and seniority, making it hard for women with families to advance in regular employment. Furthermore, three-generation households, which includes the grandparents, parents, and children, are still very common in Japan. In these, the husband's salary and benefits are expected to provide for the whole family while the wife stays home and cares for the elderly and children.

There is also a large gap in wages between men and women. In 2005, Japan had a gender wage gap of 32.8 percent, which decreased to 25.7 percent in 2017. Japan has the third highest wage gap in the OECD. The country's long work hours create an environment that reinforces the wage gap because there is a disproportional difference between how much time men and women spend on paid and unpaid work. On average, women spend 5.5 hours on unpaid housework per day, whereas men only spend one hour. Men do very little housework in Japan, and this is part of the gendered labor division. The Japanese prioritization of seniority hurts the women who want to have children first, as promotions will be awarded much later in life. The number of women in upper-level positions (managers, CEOs, and politicians, and the like) is rather low. Women only make up 3.4 percent of seats in Japanese companies' board of directors. According to scholars, in order to remove barriers against women, the government must introduce more women- and family-friendly policies.

Labor market segregation is associated with the gender wage gap. After World War II, the state deliberately made decisions to divide the labor pool by gender. Findings show that majority-female workplaces have 5.1% lower wages than majority-male workplaces, for all genders. This percentage only accounts for full-time workers and does not account for part-time female workers who may also be raising children.

An alternative theory, the Compensating Wage Differential hypothesis, states that women are not forced into these jobs per se, but instead that they pick and choose their occupations based on the benefits package that each provide. From work availability to health compensation, women may choose to have a lower wage in order to have certain job benefits. A study by Wei-hsin Yu shows that there is also a connection between wage raises if you are currently working in an environment that includes a majority of women.

A competing theory from Mary Brinton suggests that the government is structured around devices that disallow women to find "good jobs." A fourth key theory comes from Higuchi Keiko, which claims that changes in public policy are needed to encourage gender diversity in the workplace. Keiko argues that existing government policies disincentivize women from working. One such law pushed in the 1960s was called hitozukuri policy, or human-making policy, which burdened women with the responsibility to reproduce a new generation capable of economic success.

(Additional information) Historically, men dominated society was normal in general, and a part of the “Japanese culture.” Originally, politicians were mainly men, and they held the power all to their hands. Therefore, there is distinctly a perception in the political workplace, but after the late 1980s, people gradually started to embrace the importance of women needed in the political aspect. adding citation Eto, M. (2010). Women and Representation in Japan: THE CAUSES OF POLITICAL           INEQUALITY. International Feminist Journal of Politics, 12(2), 177–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616741003665227

(The old paragraph) In 2018 it was revealed that several university medical schools, Tokyo Medical University, Juntendo University, and Kitasato University, favored male applicants by using different passing marks for men and women.

(Additional information) In Japan, the ratios of female doctors compared to male doctors are relatively low, and the overall numbers of them are only 21.1%. This shows that Japan has a major gender gap in the medical field, and falls behind amongst all the G7 countries. (G7=The world’s largest economic advanced countries: the United States, Canada, Italy, France, the United Kingdom, Germany and Japan) added citation https://time.com/5657375/what-is-g7/ https://www.nippon.com/en/features/h00261/