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Gebel Ramlah

Gebel Ramlah is a region in the Western Desert of southern Egypt that was occupied throughout the African Pastoral Neolithic. Archaeological research at Gebel Ramlah has focused primarily on individual burial sites and six pastoral cemeteries, including the earliest known infant cemetery in the world. The cemeteries were active during the Final Neolithic in the fifth millennium BC. Ongoing excavation has uncovered dozens of human burials and elaborate grave goods.

Excavation
Archaeological excavation began at Gebel Ramlah in 2001, under the Combined Prehistoric Expedition (CPE) group, which has done archaeological work throughout the south Western Desert in Egypt since the 1970s. CPE was founded by Fred Wendorf, and since his retirement has been directed by Roman Schild. Both have been involved in archaeological work at Gebel Ramlah and directly associated sites in the region.

Gebel Ramlah was first discovered in 2000 by Michał Kobusiewicz, and excavation of the first three cemeteries was done in 2001 and 2003. The excavations were led by Kobusiewicz, alongside fellow archaeologists Jacek Kabacinski and Joel Irish. These cemeteries were the first Neolithic cemeteries found in the Western Desert, and thus the earliest known in the region. They are known by their site names E-01-2, E-03-1 and E-03-2.

In 2008, the signs of another cemetery were spotted by archaeologist Marta Osypinska. The location was excavated during a 2009 CPE field season, by Agnieszka Czekaj-Zastawny and Jacek Kabacinski. It was confirmed to be another cemetery, site E-09-4. Two other cemeteries were also excavated during this 2009 field season at Gebel Ramlah, both included in the site name E-09-02. This includes the unique Gebel Ramlah infant cemetery. These were discovered and excavated by Agnieszka Czekaj-Zastawny and Jacek Kabaciński and their CPE team.

Excavation of various individual burial sites and habitation sites from throughout the Neolithic have also been excavated by CPE teams at Gebel Ramlah since its discovery in 2001, but research and publication on these sites is more limited.

Neolithic Climate and Geology (?)
Archaeologists excavating and researching the Gebel Ramlah sites use a four period system based on climactic variations to categorize the human occupations of the region. Geological research has found evidence for climactic variations between each humid phase, as well as dry periods between them.


 * 1) Early Neolithic ca. 9300-6150 BC
 * 2) Middle Neolithic ca. 6050-5550 BC
 * 3) Late Neolithic ca. 5500-4650 BC
 * 4) Final Neolithic ca. 4600-3600 BC

Gebel Ramlah, or "sandy mountain", is located in the south Western Desert, near Egypt's border with Sudan. It is a large 100 meter high hill, overlooking a playa directly to its south. During the intermittent humid periods of the African Neolithic, the desert playa was filled with water and fostered a lush savanna landscape. Human occupation at Gebel Ramlah revolved around this paleo-lake. Evidence of habitation on the edges of the paleo-lake suggest that human settlements relied on the lake and its resources throughout the Neolithic. These individuals were responsible for the extensive burials of Gebel Ramlah, with all of its known burial and cemetery sites within a kilometer of the shore. Dating of some material from the upper levels of settlement areas matches the Final Neolithic timeline of the cemeteries.

Early, Middle, and Late Neolithic Occupation
Archaeology throughout in the Western Desert shows a wide span of Neolithic occupation, such as in Nabta Playa where early occupation dates back to 7500 BC (8). Nabta Playa is just 20 kilometers northwest of Gebel Ramlah, and findings of the two regions are often compared. At Gebel Ramlah, the earliest known burials have been dated to the late Early Neolithic, around 6500 BC. Burials dated to the Middle and Late Neolithic are scattered throughout the area as well. These are all individual burials or sometimes burial clusters, predating the use of large-scale cemeteries in the region.

An extensive lithic refitting was done with a collection of 190 associate lithic artifacts found on the surface near the infant cemetery of site E-09-4. The presence of all flakes and tools produced in the knapping of a singular core suggest that they were made not to be used but for training or practice. Comparative and experimental analyses of tool styles and knapping processes show direct evidence of Late Neolithic technology, designated by extensive flake production and retouched flake tools.

Final Neolithic Occupation
Archaeologists at Gebel Ramlah refer to the its Final Neolithic inhabitants as part of the Bunat El Asnan culture, individuals especially well known for their megalith constructions throughout the period. It is thought that the Bunat El Asnan people of the Gebel Ramlah region were trans-huming pastoralists. During the wet season they traveled to uplands where they could graze their cattle, while during the dry season they lived in permanent settlements on the paleo-lake. These individuals were some of the last to inhabit the Western Desert before drought and desertification finally intensified enough to drive them out. Some travelled up the Nile into North Africa, likely setting the stage for Ancient Egyptian civilizations. There are cultural elements found in the Final Neolithic of Gebel Ramlah which overlap with or are potential precursors for Ancient Egyptian elements, such as astronomical knowledge and the production of amulets. Additionally, it has been argued that the evidence for passive burial conservation in Gebel Ramlah cemeteries could be a precursor for Ancient Egyptian mummification, perhaps being based in similar protective beliefs.

E-01-2, E-03-1 and E-03-2
The first three Final Neolithic cemetery sites discovered at Gebel Ramlah were excavated in 2000, 2001, and 2003, and are known by their site names E-01-2, E-03-1 and E-03-2. These cemeteries, all very similar, are within a few meters of one another. Altogether they contain 69 individuals, some buried individually and some in group graves. There are more than double the amount of women than there are men, possibly because as herders men were more likely to die far from the settlement protecting their animals. Additionally, 22% of the individuals are children, including neonates. Archaeologists have interpreted these cemeteries as being used by extended families, those Final Neolithic trans-humanist groups with settlements on the edges of the paleo-lake. It is hypothesized that group graves within the cemeteries were used by direct family units. The diversity of individuals and equality of grave goods throughout the cemeteries indicate a lack of social differentiation.

A specific burial style was employed in these cemeteries. Individuals were placed on their right side facing south, with the knees bent and the hands positioned over the face. They were buried in oval pits, and outlines within the pits indicate that they were once lined with some sort of woven, basket-like material. In some instances, secondary inhumations are present in the cemeteries as well, where disarticulated skeletal remains were brought in from elsewhere and placed in a common grave. 896 artifacts and grave goods were found associated with the burials. These include flint and agate tools, stone objects, abundant and diverse jewelry items (beads, bracelets, pendants, amulets), sheets of mica, stone palettes, bone tools and needles, shells, pottery (including intricate caliciform beakers), ochre, and ochre containers.

The close proximity of burials throughout the cemeteries meant that older remains were often disturbed when new individuals were being buried. In these cases, some remains are found to be disturbed or incomplete. However, there is also compelling evidence of attempts to preserve these disturbed graves. For example, we see individuals whose teeth are backwards, out of order, and even carefully placed in an eye socket or nasal cavity. In another case, an individual's own radius and ulna were inserted between their humerus and bracelets, to keep the jewelry in place after apparent disruption. These instances show an effort to ensure that remains were kept complete and together, indicating some significance of the human body's integrity in and after death.

The remains of one male individual in this cemetery group showed signs of great physical strain that indicates bending and lifting heavy objects. This type of skeletal stress is different than what results from herding, and thus what is typically seen in the remains of Gebel Ramlah men. Archaeologists theorize that this individual may have taken part in the construction of the iconic Saharan megalithic structures erected nearby during the Final Neolithic (such as those in Nabta Playa).

E-09-4
Around 600 meters from the previously described cemeteries, cemetery E-09-4 was first noted by archaeologists in 2008. Artifacts clustered on the surface were indicative of established Gebel Ramlah Final Neolithic burial practices, including a stone palette, red ochre, and modified shells from the Red Sea. Further research and excavation in 2009 showed that the cemetery was extremely poorly preserved. Although no human bones preserved, the presence of these artifacts and remnants of ovular grave pits allowed two graves to be confirmed, with likely evidence for multiple others.

E-09-02
Site E-09-02 is a burial complex containing two cemeteries, both discovered by archaeologists in 2009. The larger of the two was used for the majority of adults, juveniles, and children. The second, however, was an exclusively "infant" cemetery. Most of these individuals were infants who died in or shortly after birth, though it seems that any children under 3 were also buried here (there are four cases of this). These cemeteries were likely used simultaneously by one Gebel Ramlah group. The infant cemetery, thought to have been in use between 4500 and 4300 BC, has been the focus of publication on site E-09-02. There are various cases around the world of early infant inhumation, but the presence of an entire cemetery set aside for infants, this early, is unique.

The adult cemetery contains at least 60 individuals. In comparison, the infant cemetery has 39, within 32 graves. Although mostly infants, there are two adults and one juvenile (around 14 years old) as well, each buried alongside an infant. One of the adults and the juvenile were both confirmed to be female, while the other adult was unidentifiable. It is likely that these individuals are mothers who died in or shortly after childbirth, along with their child. Like the previously described cemeteries, these burials are tightly packed. In the infant cemetery, all 32 graves are packed within a space of six meters by eight meters. The infant remains were often in fairly poor condition, due to exposure as well as the delicacy of infant bones in general. This does limit aDNA study and exact aging of the remains. Additionally, limitations are placed by a lack of artifacts. Unlike in the previously described cemeteries, grave goods were fairly uncommon, within the infant cemetery in particular. Red ochre was present with every individual, but other than this there were only a few scattered shells (from the Nile and Red Sea), one ivory bracelet, 3 pieces of limonite and one piece of malachite.

Several infant remains showed signs of burning. This burning of the deceased was likely intentional, with the remains being placed into pits that contained burning fires before being fully buried and covered. However, archaeologists have been unable to determine why it was done.

Archaeologists suspect that the group who used the E-09-04 burial complex was separate from those using the previously described cemeteries, and though likely pastoralists as well, were not as mobile and spent more time at Gebel Ramlah. It is possible that the women and children of this group lived at Gebel Ramlah year round, with only men traveling with the herds

Pottery
With its large and unusual cemetery sites, Gebel Ramlah is beneficial to archaeologists in understand the use of funerary pottery within the Neolithic Western Desert region. However, some limitations are found in the relatively small amount of pottery excavated from the burial sites. An analysis of Gebel Ramlah's pottery assemblage was done by Dr. Maria C. Gatto.

Physical characteristics
It appears that temper wasn't intentionally added to the clay, which was common practice in early Nubian and Egyptian ceramics. The high quality of local clay made temper unnecessary. Small sand particles and occasional shale fragments were likely already in the clay when it was collected. Clay is present within some nearby hills (including Gebel Ramlah itself), as are sand and shales similar to those found in the ceramics. Thus, Gatto hypothesizes that the pottery was made within or nearby Gebel Ramlah. Considering the consistent water supply needed for pottery work, this is potentially notable. During the Final Neolithic when this production was occurring, we know that the Gebel Ramlah paleo-lake was drying up and water may not have been as ample as in the past.

Erosion on the pottery made certain analyses of shaping and design difficult, but comparative study has led archaeologists to believe that coiling and pinching techniques were used to form the vessels found at Gebel Ramlah, with perhaps paddle and anvil methods as well. The works were typically either smoothed or burnished. Some seem to have been coated with a thin layer of clay after being shaped, creating a black outer layer once the vessel was fired. Geometric decorations are found on the large tulip-shaped caliciform beakers, and most often consist of large zigzags filled in with different patterns (ripples, dots, lines).

Only around a fourth of the vessels found within Gebel Ramlah burial sites were produced specifically as funerary pieces. The rest were offerings that once were used for a utilitarian purpose (mend holes indicate their previous use). These previously used vessels were typically medium sized bowls- more simply constructed than the elaborate funerary beakers. Notably, just over half were decorated, typically with a ripple pattern. Gatto hypothesizes that perhaps decorated vessels held a greater significance and were more likely to be selected as funerary offerings. In different Gebel Ramlah burial sites, however, the percentages of funerary pieces, pre-used pieces, and decorated pieces differ.

Spacial differences
Groupings of burials within various cemeteries can be attributed to family units within the large extended family that populated Gebel Ramlah. Gatto hypothesizes that spacial groupings of different pottery styles could also be connected to different families with unique preferences or traditions.

Regional comparisons
Some of the intricate shapes and designs of Final Neolithic pottery at Gebel Ramlah differ greatly from even Late Neolithic productions of the region. In fact, pieces like the ripple-decorated caliciform beakers most closely resemble Nubian pottery. Gatto hypothesizes that, perhaps, individuals from further out in the Nubian Nile valley were moving toward Gebel Ramlah and surrounding regions (where water sources were slightly more reliable) as water dwindled during the Final Neolithic. If true, these individuals may have introduced Gebel Ramlah populations to their own pottery styles and techniques (and vice versa).

Comparison with better studied Late and Final Neolithic sites in Nubia and upper Egypt also help to supplement for the minimal testing done on Gebel Ramlah Pottery. The analysis of pottery from sites such as Nabta Playa helped to form hypotheses concerning the impacts of different firing temperatures on the unique local clay used in these ceramics, as well as the formation of features such as the previously described black top-layer.

Archaeobotany
An archaeobotanical study was done at Gebel Ramlah cemetery sites E-01-2, E-03-1 and E-03-2 by Dr. Maria Lityńska-Zając. Minimal botanical remains were recovered, and few samples were studied in general: 20 samples from E-01-2, four from E-03-1, and two from E-03-2. These were collected from various different site locations, including under skeletal remains, within pottery vessels and bone containers, within fire hearths, and generally within burials/burial areas. Some were general soil samples, which did not always contain botanical evidence. One of the E-01-2 samples, two of the E-03-1 samples, and both of the E-03-2 samples did not contain any botanical remains. Other samples were taken in places where heavy charcoal was noticed in the soil.

Wood
The majority of the remains found were the charcoal remnants of wood from fires. Many of these charcoal fragments were very small, and 60% (>512 pieces) are unidentifiable. The identified fragments were only identifiable to the genus level, and they all fall within two tree genuses still common in the region today. 38% (274 pieces) are Tamarix sp., and 2% (21 pieces) are Acacia sp. Unsurprisingly, many of these larger, identifiable fragments were collected from fire hearth features. According to Lityńska-Zając, these charcoal wood fragments were primarily used, most likely, for fire and fuel. Some acacias can be used to make colorants, so this is also a possibility considering the evidence of colorants as grave goods.

Seeds and grains
In the assemblage were only two identifiable seeds (of the genus Grevia) and one identifiable grain (sorghum, or Sorgum bicolar). Sorghum is a domesticated grain that is commonly found in nearby sites, such as Nabta Playa. Sorghum's presence at Gebel Ramlah provides further evidence for its role as an early gathered domesticate in the region. Grevia sp. are trees and shrubs, with edible fruits. Lityńska-Zając hypothesizes that these fruits may have been imported from elsewhere.

Mollusk shell artifacts
A zooarchaeological study was done by Aldona Kurzawska to identify the mollusk shells used in various grave goods in cemeteries E-01-2, E-03-1 and E-03-2. 142 shell artifacts were present throughout the burials (with no discrimination). Some whole/partial shells were buried, while others had been shaped into bangles, beads, pendants, and nose plugs. Kurzawska separates the assemblage into it's identifiable gastropods and bivalves, as well as unidentifiable artifacts. Occasionally, shells throughout these categories were found still coated with ochre.

Gastropods
Within the assemblage, Kurzawska found evidence of Lambis truncata sebae, Cypraea pantherina, and genus Nerita (likely Nerita orbignyana and Nerita sanguinolenta). Various individuals of these different species were found covered with a layer of ochre colorant. All of these are species originating in the Red Sea. This is most likely evidence of trading systems within Gebel Ramlah society, in this case as far as the Red Sea coast.

Nerita orbignyana and Nerita sanguinolenta are species that fall under the common name "nerite". The Nerita sp. individuals were used as beads, with holes drilled in the small gastropod shells. Of the 57 individuals throughout the burials, 51 were found together, near the skull of an individual in cemetery E-01-2. Thus it is likely these beads originally were associated within a jewelry piece, possibly a necklace.

Lambis truncata sebae, a subspecies of the giant spider conch, is a much larger shell than the Nerita species. These shells were cut to form bangles. 28 bangles made of this species were found throughout the burials (23 complete, five incomplete).

Cypraea pantherina has the common name "panther cowry". Two individuals of Cypraea pantherina were found throughout the cemeteries, one in E-01-2 and one in E-03-2, both in association with a particular burial. Both individuals were modified such that the lips were cut and inner columella removed. Kurzawska hypothesizes that this was perhaps done to make the shells into containers, but its true purpose is unknown.

Bivalves
The only bivalve species identified in the cemeteries is Chambardia rubens arcuata, which originates in the Nile River (freshwater). 16 specimens were present within the cemeteries, some whole and some fragments. Two valves found in E-03-2 contained the remnants of green pigment. According to Kurzawska, this indicates they were likely used as either containers or pallets for colorants. Since most of the valves showed no signs of modification or use, there is uncertainty surrounding other roles this species may have played in funerary tradition and general culture. It is possible the shells were used as spoons, or small containers for food or other items. The mollusk may have been eaten, as well.

Unidentifiable
Heavily modified shells could not be identified. Small disc-shaped beads, shaped pendants, and thin nose-plugs all made of shell were unable to be identified in this study. The various artifacts were, however, determined to be marine. Kurzawska states that they likely all originated from the Red Sea, like the identified marine shells.

The small disc-shaped beads are all around 0.4 cm in diameter. Most of them were located together, associated with a burial in cemetery E-01-2. They were likely strung together in a necklace or other jewelry piece.

Nine ovular shell pendants were found associated with an adult female buried in cemetery E-01-2. One more triangular pendant was found in another burial within the same cemetery.

Two small shell nose-plugs (used for septum piercings) were found, one buried with an adult female in cemetery E-01-2, the other on the surface of E-03-1.

Settlement Sites
habitation sites... https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=rUOWDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA117&dq=gebel+ramlah&ots=0m_HBvayGd&sig=BAZXk5XFutSEONQxxYaDBqG33-s#v=onepage&q=gebel%20ramlah&f=false

sep section on individual burial sites?? idk maybe. not enough.

Physical Anthropology
Joel D. Irish has done extensive physical anthropological analysis on the human remains of Gebel Ramlah. His research at Gebel Ramlah includes craniometry and dental morphology. Gebel Ramlah inhabitants, located in between upper Egypt to their north and Nubia to their south, show characteristics of both of these populations. In general, morphological study indicates that Gebel Ramlah populations were the product of sub-Saharan and North African mixtures. And despite cultural variations, particularly variations in burial practices between cemeteries, physical assessments indicate that differing populations within Gebel Ramlah likely had the same origins and genetic basis.

Dental and cranial morphological studies consistently cluster Gebel Ramlah individuals as being most similar to Nubians, however upper Egyptian comparisons fall closely behind and there are similarities and differences with both of these populations. Gebel Ramlah individuals were also considerably taller than Egyptian populations known to have come before and after. The men are on average very tall, with equivalents in height only found in early dynastic Egyptians and later Nubians. They are considerably taller than most Egyptian populations known to have come before and after. Again, this suggests a primary genetic input from Nubian populations. However, the variation in Gebel Ramlah physical traits does indicate a mixture of many different groups. This is potentially rooted in the trans-humanist pastoralist style used by many inhabitants of Gebel Ramlah, as these groups were not isolated from distant populations.

Irish also found that Gebel Ramlah inhabitants seemed to have exceptionally good health, superior to Egyptians that came after. Other than their superior height, there was also a lack of detectable skeletal disease (as well as trauma). In his studies of cemeteries E-01-2, E-03-1 and E-03-2, he found that all 17 subadults showed no sign of disease, and only four of 50 adults had detectable diseases or disorders.

Dentition
Dental studies are indicative of dietary trends within the Gebel Ramlah populations. Angled wear on teeth is potentially associated with intensification of food preparation. Habitation sites nearby confirm that technologies such as grinding stones and pottery were in use, allowing food to be cooked and made less tough. Teeth were more likely to grind against one another when food became softer. The use of grinding stones likely added sand to food (such as grains) that also worked to grind down teeth. However, the angle of tooth wear was greater than that seen in agricultural populations. According to Irish, this could indicate the extensive gathering of wild plants, perhaps alongside the use of certain semi-domesticated foods.

The continued use of primarily wild plants is also support by a lack of caries on the teeth of Gebel Ramlah individuals. Caries form as a result of heavily consuming domesticated plant foods that are high in carbohydrates. In fact, no caries were found in any Gebel Ramlah remains. Typically a small percentage of caries form even within fully hunter-gatherer societies. Archaeologists are not entirely sure how these lesions were entirely prevented, but Irish suggests that other factors may have been at play as well, such as oral cleansing. He also hypothesizes that the grinding of teeth crowns reduced the surface area where caries could form.