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Age differences
In case of older adults, abilities in the spatial domain decrease. However, this is a generalization that can be error-prone. Indeed, it is necessary to consider what kind of spatial ability we are considering, whether it is small scale, large scale spatial ability, or the spatial self-evaluations (as wayfinding attitudes), and how these variables are related to each other. Moreover, some other factors that decline with aging could also impact spatial abilities, such as memory functions, executive control, and other cognitive factors.

Small-scale abilities, such as mental rotation, spatial visualization, spatial perception, and perspective taking decline. Even the course of decreasing is related to the type of abilities, task features, and other individual differences (such as gender and expertise in these abilities). In general, the abilities decline around 60, and can start as early as 50 in perspective taking.

Concerning wayfinding attitudes, generally self-reported ones, evidence suggests that they tend to be quite stable across the lifespan, such as sense of direction, with some changes such as the light increase of spatial anxiety.

Spatial learning and representation abilities also tend to decrease with age. Differences between young and older adults are related to several factors, both at the individual and at the environmental level. In fact, older adults are more likely to decline in spatial tasks based on allocentric knowledge (self-to object relations) with respect to egocentric knowledge (self-to object relation). When the task requires to recognize information, there is less age difference with respect to when active recall is required. When the environment is familiar, it is less subject to gender differences with respect to young adults. In studies involving healthy adults aged 18-78, it was found that difficulty increased, particularly from age 70. Biological factors involved in the decline is the decreased activity of the hippocampus, the parahippocampal gyrus, and the retrosplenial cortex, resulting in difficulties in acquiring new spatial knowledge and applying them.

Despite the decline of spatial abilities (such as visuospatial working memory and rotation), both spatial abilities and wayfinding attitudes contribute to different extents to maintain spatial learning and navigation accuracy in elderly. Indeed studies with samples of older adults showed that despite the decline of spatial abilities (small-scale), the latter still have a functional role in environment learning. Other studies showed the positive role of wayfinding attitudes, such as pleasure in exploring places, in maintaining spatial learning accuracy. This is beneficial because spatial learning is crucial for elders’ security, and subsequently, their autonomy, an indicator of quality of life.