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= BALAISA FIRST BOOK - BALAISA DIĒNKO ŞỸ =

1. INTRODUCTION - JEŞO
“ The principal difficulties to be overcome were: 1) To render the study of the language so easy as to make its acquisition mere play to the learner.

2) To enable the learner to make direct use of his knowledge with persons of any nationality, whether the language be universally accepted or not; in other words, the language is to be directly a means of international communication.

3) To find some means of overcoming the natural indifference of mankind, and disposing them, in the quickest manner possible, and en masse, to learn and use the proposed language as a living one, and not only in last extremities, and with the key at hand.” Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof “ Cuiōi parkabugā sabin dāla:

1) Basasy lerem sœ kolāi çensōga als danjī joga lerentēme eldesahōm māga.

2) Ekvēi kuokkusetīk runanvē ziksetsūi iaçahōsy utzem magā eikabīk, sawkān basa pacāna iarirēi niarirēi; aɣēi vocindē, basa ziksecūna ēnta kuokkusēi balaşisy zindela idagā.

3) Kelkẙ tebāri ubuntusy mukanşym parkabugā dy zindelam milāk, ve sondepuneşpa, mabistāi kabīli şekedē, ve mazadē, propunerēi basam als ēnta zivadẙm dāitatō leregā utzegāpās, niē lāsti kiekkitendēdakēpās, ve soşyvē hadidē." Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof’s Translation to Balaisa. Amauta Ludvik Leizer Zamenhofsy Balaisame Upsetze

Balaisa Basa or, as literally translated, “Language towards Connexion, Langconn)”, is a constructed language that comprises a very regular and standarized grammar as well as a rich and easily comprehensible lexicon. Words for this lexicon are loaned from 25 main languages sorted by their number of speakers. Moreover, syntax, grammar and lexicon will also emerge from some other 20 additional minority languages and 5 other classical ones. This classification doesn’t prevent other languages or dialects to occasionally contribute to the formation of more vocabulary.

Note: Balara Language may be written in several writing systems, although Latin alphabet is mostly preferred.

1. ARTICLES
There is no definite ARTICLE (English the); there is only an indefinite article singular ēnmio for people, ēnko for objects, ēnta for ideas, ēnkor for animals, ēnzo for plants and other living things, alike for all genders and cases (English a, an).

EXAMPLE

書 şẙ - book, the book

一個書 enko şẙ - a book

書乃 şẙn - books

The main difference between the use of articles in Balaisa and in English is that, in Balaisa, a singular noun without an article may be used to indicate an entire class.

EXAMPLE

狮子危险乙動物的앗 Shingi hatāri domu dās - Lions are dangerous animals, or "the lion is a dangerous animal".

2. NOUNS
Nouns have the ending in A, E, O, U, Y (1); CONSONANT (plus silent I) or in TWO CONSONANTS (-bs, -ds, -fs, -gs, -ks, -lf, -ls, -ms, -nf, -ns, -nd, -ps, -ɣs, -rs, -rt, -sk -st, -şk -şt) (plus silent I) (2). To form plural, add the ending –n.

2.1 Vowel harmony:
Suffixes and prefixes with X ending vowel apply the Major Vowel Harmony Law: the suffix or prefix will end with A, Y, U, O, E, I, Ü or Œ depending on whether its last vowel was.

EXAMPLE

n a jaiaçā - we don't know

Some other suffixes with AE, YI, UÜ, OŒ ending joint vowels apply the Minor Harmony Law: suffix last vowel will be -A/ -Y/ -U/ -O (1) or E/ -I/ -Ü / -Œ (2) respectively depending on whether its last vowel belonged to the first group (1) or the second group (2) respectively.

EXAMPLES

imi sanko ş ẙt heidūta - he already read three books

jarko nek ot aihē - I have four cats

''rang i net akontā. I count the days''

2.2 Accusative
Accusative singular case (direct object) can be obtained by adding the suffix -ru/-iu to and to form plural, by add the ending –run/ -iun (Russian "-yu"; Korean "-ur"; Hindi "-on").n

Aymara: k(o)

Sanskrit: -am

Korean: -(r)ur

Hungarian: -t

Russian: -yu, -shek

EXAMPLE

inunbu hasabutāk gogūşpa sonionsy nekorun çusetā - those dogs chased the boys' cats to that house while barking.

2.3 Genitive
Genitive can be obtained by adding -sy (English of, and possessive ‘s); to form plural add the ending -nsy instead. (Turkish - sı)

EXAMPLE

Dostikūnsy inu kühetīdē taberu mō ūta - Your friends’ dog ate all the food in my kitchen.

2.4 Dative
Dative is expressed by adding –me (English to), and to form plural add the ending –nme. (Guarani ‘-me’)

EXAMPLE

Dōstinē ekvēi vohanisy rāng mō hasakūme lajāk - his friends will also come to your house any day of this week.

2.5 Ablative
Ablative is expressed by adding the ending –tīk, and to form plural add the ending –ntīk to the plural form. (Euskara -tik)

EXAMPLES

Hasatītīk enta vihtēi şimuru tīme gasugā ailatā. I came from my house to tell you an important matter.

ribontīk teheiaragā lakuā. He has come from the mountains to see you.

2.6 Diminutive and augmentative
Diminutive is formed by adding the ending -şkx (Polosh "-shki, -shka"), applying the Major Harmony Law, and to form the augmentative add the ending -jāga (Russian ‘-jága’)

EXAMPLES

enpi nāti inuru heihē. He has a pretty dog.

''enpi nāti inuşkuru heihē. - he has a pretty little dog''

enpi inujāga olāndi - a big dog is coming

2.7 Honorifics
Attached to the first name or surname of a person, they imply different forms of address, those are:

PREPOSITIONS

1.Neutral respectful, “Mr., Ms.”: '''Bāi. Beiēn, Baiān''' (Turkish)

2. High admiration, “Wise”: Amauta (Quechua)

3. For close friends and family, “esteemed”: Saiẙn (Turkish)

4. For people of lesser age: Mas

5. Informal for friends, disrespectful for strangers: Enta (Japanese, Arabic)

EXAMPLES

Bāi/Beiēn Wang bitehēvē, Qin çān, zatra lajāk - Mr. Wang will come tomorrow with his son, Qin

John hobēi, lerentētī, Alemaigne samāsy şẙnvē içen entuziāsi - John, my student, is very enthusiastic of Madame Alemaigne’s books.

My best friend Samantha is coming with her mother, Ms. Robinson - Mera sāi dostitī saiẙn Samantha maitahāvē, Bāi Robinson, lakān

POSTPOSITIONS

1. Honorific, neutral “honorable”: sī (Korean)

2. For strangers, respectful: nīm (Korean)

3. For friends: kūn (Japanese; Vietnamese)

4. When referring to people of upper position or age than oneself, “Mr., Ms.”: Sān (Japanese)

5. For kids, or to imply cuteness: çān (Japanese, Quechua)

6. For students or apprentices: hobēi (M. Chinese)

7. For teachers: Lauşy (M. Chinese)

8. Deep admiration and respect; “Sir, Madamme”: Samā (Japanese)

9. Insulting: iā (Korean)

10. Formal disrespect: kisamā (Japanese)

Additionally, postpositions can be attached to prepositions to form new honorific nouns with plural meaning and a second person plural pronoun that can denote different forms of address.

EXAMPLES

baisamā- “ladies and gentlemen” (or Mrs. and Ms.)

saiẙnlauşy, hœgisnime vajaihangemās- Dear teachers, we welcome you to this meeting

''Omāiā! Teiu ab reifāta? (Informal or disrespectful) Hey, you! What did you do now?''

2.8 NOMINALIZATION AND SUBORDINATION
VERB AND ADJECTIVE NOMINALIZATION AND SUBORDINATION

To obtain the nominal clause / content clause (sentence or verb working as a noun), add "go" (that) between that content clause and the main clause. (Korean)

EXAMPLE

I think that you are a good person - Reienmiō sāi runa go adenkā

I think that. But adenkā

To obtain the relative clause / adjective clause (sentence or verb working as an adjective) of sentence or verb, add “dy” at the ending of the sentence. It is possible to use a nominal clause and a relative clause in the same sentence (example 2).

EXAMPLE

this is the woman I introduced to you yesterday - ni iamsa tīme jeshotā dy onna.

ni okaimuretā dy - this is the forgotten one (or this is the one that was forgotten).

inmesta enlarēi (dy) go adenkā - I think that they are the most visited (ones) (or I think that they are the ones that were most visited

Nominal adjective has the same affix as a regular adjective. To distinguish or subordinate it, an adjective might be used with a verb  and postposition “dy” (the one that) between the adjective or relative clause, and the main clause.

EXAMPLES

aiasrāi dyduā - I want the (one that is) blue

(simple form: aiasrāiduā)

I saw the thing I believe most valuable- Mesta cenōi amidū dy mut

(=/= I believe that I saw the most valuable thing - Mesta cenōi mut aiartā go amidū. Distinguish between relative or adjective clauses and nominal clauses.

3. ADJECTIVES
Cases and numbers don’t apply to adjectives, unless it is a nominal adjective. Adjective form can be obtained by adding -i and STRESSING its preceding VOWEL. For gentilices, -add ending -r. For jobs and professions, add ending -ju. (Japanese)

EXAMPLE

Borāi ribo - The brown mountain

To obtain nominal form or topic (nominal sentence), add the nominal suffix -dy (M. Chinese “de”. Turkish “-dığ-”) to the adjective form; to form plural add -dyn.

EXAMPLES

kazēi- windy, lamsāi- slow, bulūi- cloudy mābi - fast

Nominal Adjectives Singular: Kazēidy, Lamsāidy, Bulūidy, Mābidy - “The windy one, the slow one, the small one, the cloudy one, the eastern one, the necessary one” or “The one that is windy, the one that is slow, the one that is small, the one that is cloudy, the one that is eastern, the one that is necessary”

Nominal Adjectives Plural: Kazēidyn, Lamsāidyn, Bulūidyn, Mābidyn- “The windy ones, the slow ones, the small ones, the cloudy ones, the eastern ones, the necessary ones” or “The ones that are windy, the ones that are slow, the ones that are small, the ones that are cloudy, the one that are eastern, the one that are necessary”

EXAMPLES

mesta kēçidym haihē - she has the smallest one.

umani imesta lamsidy, lekin grīsidybu imesta mābidyntīk enpi - this horse is the slowest one, but that gray one is one of the fastest (ones).

mera keçí nekoni mera gēdidybu cusētandō, hankēna lekin mesta gēdidy katsunta - this smaller cat was chasing that bigger one, finally though  the biggest one  was the winning one .

mesta mābidydakē bisamiu kacujāk - only the fastest one will win this competition / match

hasabu als bis omera gēdi, sœ tus omesta gēdidy, bis omesta kēçidypās- that house is bigger than mine, so yours is the biggest one and mine is the smallest one.

4. NUMERALS
The basic NUMERALS (not declined) are: en, dü, san, jar, pe, şak, el, aɣ, nau, ten, sen, tensen [English one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, hundred, thousand].

(Hindi, French, M. Chinese, Marathi, Greek/Hindi, Lakota, Tamil, German, Punjabi, English, Chinese, English and Chinese).

Tens and hundreds are formed by simple juxtaposition of the numerals. To show ordinal numbers we add -miō for people; -ko for physical objects and things; -ta for ideas and abstract things; -zeki for animals; and -zo for plants and other living things; for multiples, add the suffix -obli; for fractions [actually, reciprocals], -va; for collectives, -mō; for divisionals, the prefix di-. Noun and adverb numerals can also be used.

(Korean -myeong, Japanese -ko, Bengali -ta, C. Chinese -zek, M. Chinese -zhong; Ind. F. Esperanto -obli, Marathi ‘-va’, Japanese ‘mo’, M. Chinese ‘dì-’)

EXAMPLES

hasaiudē sanpi uman inār - there are three horses in this house.

''onnabūt tāuzo saçam haihē. That woman has five trees.''

Ēnko şymdakē aidūta - I only read one book.

ava (my) sānoblim jaihē - but we have the triple.

5. PRONOUNS
Pronouns in Balaisa are: Bi, Tu, So, Şa, Ze; My, Vu, Son, Şan, Zen. English: I, You (sg.), It, She, He; We, You (pl.), Them (neutral), Them (feminine), Them (masculine).

EXAMPLE

London’my oienladuā dy siōdakē bī oikō? (Informal) Londony enlatāi oidā dy siōdakē bī dā obnikā? Is it me the only one who wants to visit London?

Pronouns in Balara are: Bi, Tu, So, Şa, Ze; My, Vu, Son, Şan, Zen.
EXAMPLE

London’my oienladuā dy siōdakē bi oikō? (Informal) London’my enladuā idā dy siōdakē bī dā obnikā? (formal) Is it me the only one who wants to visit London?

Accusative: Bx-, Tx- Sx-, Şx-, Zx-; Mx-, Vx-, Sxn-, Şxn-, Zxn-.

“X” depends on the first vowel of the person inflexion, therefore it is added  following the major harmony law. Second person conjugation example: You see me - Beiarā. You see you (yourself) - Teiarā. You see it - Seiarā. You see us - Meiarā. You see you (yourselfs) - Veiarā. You see them - Senarā.

EXAMPLES

I like them - sanaravīc.

you (singular) visited me yesterday- amsa beienlāta.

Dative:  Bīme, Tīme, Sīme, Şame, Zeme; Nīme, Vīme, Sīnme, Şanme, Zenme.

EXAMPLES

Come to me- Bīme laitē.

We will respond to them- Sīnme japendujāk.

Genitive or Possesive:

Singular: -(t)ī -, -(k)ū, -(h)ō, -(h)ā; -(h)ē, -(t)ina, -(k)uma, - (h)ōn, -(h)ān, -(h)ēn.

Plural: -nī -, -nū, -nō, -nā; -nē, -nina, -numa, - nōn, -nān, -nēn.

EXAMPLES

My house- Hasatī. Your future- Atidū Their friends- Penyonōn. Our city- Purīna. Your (pl.) teacher- Lerejukuma.

Ablative -tīk: Bitīk, Tutīk, Sotīk, Şatīk, Zetīk; Mytīk, Vutīk, Sontīk, Şantīk, Zentīk.

Possessive nominal (mine, etc.) -s: Bis, Tus, Sos, Zes, Şas, Zes; Mys, Vus, Sons, Şans, Zens.

6.1 Person tense conjugation:
First person: A(i)-. Plural: Ja(i) -

Second person: Re(i)-. Plural: Pe(i)-

Third person: O(/I)*-, Ha(i) -, He(i)-. Plural: On-(/In), Han-, Hen-

* only add the  -i - or substitute O-/On- with I-/In- before monosyllabic verbs or verbs beginning with a vowel or “h” sound.

(Guarani Grammar; Russian “on”)

EXAMPLE

bāisi vageniu hai h ē - (she) has this white car

puribudē in vonū - they live in that city

Person tense rules:

1. When the subject and the verb tense is already explicit, the person tense affix (a, ai, re, rei, etc.) is omitted.

John sees the tree - John saçaiu hei mī. Teniu runanbu mindō? What are those people looking at? (on- before mindō is omitted)

Teru runkabu imindi? What are those people looking at? (on- before mindō is omitted)

2. Otherwise, if the the subject is omitted and thus it has to be clarified by adding a personal prefix to the verb, the present tense suffix -s (and only the present tense suffix) will be omitted.

EXAMPLE dostikūn vocynmy viēs dy vegim aravic - I like the way your friends write words

6.2 Forms of the verb:
After the root, present takes -(nothing) * (Semitic, Japonic, Korean languages) simple past -la** (Arabic -ta -tu, -ti. Hindi -tha; Russian -la; Japanese “-ita”, Italian “-etta”), formal past taelā, experiential past -skhāē [“used to”] (quechua -sqa; Thai -khey), non-fulfilled/regret past -ngaelī (Swahili “-ngali”), fulfilled past -vān (M. Chinese ‘wan’), past participle/ recent past -kuā (Tupi-Guarani F. Guarani '-kue/-ngue'; Cocoma "kua") ; future time -jāēk (Turkish -cak/-cek); conditional mood, -bē (Italian -bbe); ; progressive mood, -zẙ (C. Chinese ‘-zyu’) command mood, -gā (Kazakh -g´a); infinitive mood -k (Turkish - k).

* To obtain the present tense, add person tense prefixes and STRESS or LENGTHEN the last vowel of the verb.

** To obtain the simple past, add -tāē suffix applying Minor Vowel Harmony Law.

Participles with adjectival and nominal meaning: present active -ndi, past active -l āē ndi; future active, -jāēndi (Indoeropean F. Sanskrit -ant); present passive -rāēi; past passive -raela; future passive -rae jāēk (Japanese -raretta). Continous mood may be expressed with the use of the verb "to be" ("dak") alongside the Participle Adjective.

Active and passive pairs can be illustrated with the transitive verb rubīk (to chop). Picture a woodsman approaching a tree with an axe, intending to chop it down. He is rubijēndi (about to chop) and the tree is rubirejēk (about to be chopped). While swinging the axe, he is rubīndi (chopping) and the tree is rubirēi (being chopped). After the tree has fallen, he is rubitēndi (having chopped) and the tree is rubireitē (chopped).

EXAMPLE

Enta sejicūi sadinta gibejēndi ihoferēi- A honest (in the future) giving of goods is expected

To obtain the adverbial form, add suffix -şpa.

EXAMPLES

Adverbial meaning: nekota revişpa çuselandi indala. they were chasing the cat by running (adv.) or they were running (adv.) chasing the cat

= / =

Adjectival meaning:

nekota çusejēndi sonion - the kids that were about to chase the cat

aksidendita aratāndi runan the people who saw the accident (or the accident (in the past) seeing people)

Nominal meaning

aisetēndi te ki nidatā - what I was saying was not this

Verb to be / Copulative Sentence

The verb to be in present tense doesn't take its "dak" conjugation form, instead, it is attached to the adjective atribute itself as if it was a copulative verb.

EXAMPLES

heirafī - he is my friend

saça ifar ālti - the tree is very old

ALL VERB TENSE EXAMPLES

Present tense ota şyrun aihē - I have many books

Simple past icen arazonīru aihetā veī- I had this problem before too

Experiential past she has not seen the see (nor got the experience from it) - umiu nahaiaraskhā - I haven't seen the sea (nor got the experience of it)

Non-fulfilled/ regret past ''Helsinki'dē avontungalī, upasiu aiarangalī. if I had lived in Helsinki, I would have seen snow.''

Fulfilled past eganiu aiaravān -I have seen this film (the whole film)

Past participle gans onrevikuā - they have just arrived

Unlike English, all forms of the passive are formed without the attributive verb dāk, English "to be" (Japanese ‘da’. Euskara ‘da’); the preposition with the passive is bei (English by). Imperative takes -itē (Spanish “-te”; Japanese “-ite”); Supplicatory; Petition -itekurē (Japanese -itekureru).

6.3 PASSIVE AND ACTIVE VOICES
EXAMPLES:


 * 1) Şyki bei enmio Italiār vierelē- This book was written by an Italian.
 * 2) Bei enmiō Hanunār if a ralā -  It  was ma de  by an American.

Ki okaimurelēn di - this is the forgotten one (This is the one that was forgotten)

onmesta enlarelēndi go adenkā - I think that they are the most visited ones (I think that they are the ones that were most visited)

kira omesta cōnmindi (enmiō)dakē kacujāndi dagā osenzujāk - only who is the most clever (one) will achieve to be one of the winning ones here

OTHER EXAMPLES

''hasaki ifar ālti. - This house is very old''

zanandi jiden - standing memories.

daima blaibejendi jiden - memories that will be staying forever (Forever staying memories).

''tayavu, meihilfeitē! - please, help us!''

senreiarangalī - if you had seen them (but you haven’t)

Umiu heiaraskhā - He has seen the sea (and got the experience of it)

Beijingime najairiskhē - We haven’t gone to Beijing (neither got the experience of it)

Finally, to emphasize, whone may add -ia between after the verb (Germanic F. ja Korean ia)

EXAMPLE

I went to that city - Puribūme airutā

I did go to that city - Puribūme airutāiā

7. ADVERBS
To form adverbs, add -an  (Arabic “-aan”) to the adjective form.

EXAMPLES

udāsi- sad

udāsian- sadly

badāi- great

badāian- greatly

8. PREPOSITIONS AND POSTPOSITIONS
ALL prepositions and postpositions take the nominative.

EXAMPLE

Dekāt

9. PRONUNCIATION
Every word is read as it is written. It should make immediate sense.

ALPHABET - ABACA

A - B - C /TS - Ç /CH - D - E - F - G - H - I -  - J - K - KK - L - M - N - NN - O - Œ - P - PP - ɣ/KH - R - S - Ş/SH - T - TT- U - Ü - V - W - X - Y - Z

A - Ba - Ca - Ça - Da- E - Fa - Ga - Ha - I - Ka - Okka - La - Ma - Na - Onna - O - Pa - Oppa - ɣa/Kha - Ra - Sa - Şa/Sha  - Ta- Otta - U - Ü - Va - Wa - Oksa - Y - Za

(IPA /a/ - /b/ - /ts/ - /ch/ - /d/ - /e/ - /f/ - /g/ - /h/ - /i/ or /j/ - /dz/ - /k/ - /k’/ - /l/ - /m/ - /n/ - /n’/ - /p/ - /p’/ - /X/ - /r/ - /s/ - /t/ - /t’/ - /u/ - /y/ - /w/ - indefinite - /ɨ/ - /z/)

9.1 Vowels
Balaisa Language has 8 short vowels:

A a Y y O o U u ; E e I i Œ œ Ü ü

(IPA: /a/ - /ɨ/ - /o/ - /u/ ; /e/ - /i/ - /ɒ/ - /ʏ/).

and 8 long vowels:

Ā ā  Y̊ ẙ Ō ō Ū ū ; Ē ē Ī ī Œ̄ œ̄ Ů ů

(IPA: /a:/ - /ɨ:/ - /o/- /u:/ ; /e:/ - /i:/ - /ɒ:/ - /ʏ:/ )

9.2 Semi-consonants
Vowels “i” and “u” after a VOWEL or at the beginning of a word become a /j/  and /w/ semi-consonant sounds respectively.

EXAMPLE

Ālti runan ve ogon mō teb ēi (IPA: /tebe:j/) ahtum inçiō - old people and kids require special attention.

9.3 Consonants
Also has 22 consonants:

Ba  Ca (or Tsa) Ça (or Cha)  Da Fa Ga Ha Ja Ka La Ma Na Pa Ra Ɣa (or Kha) Sa Sha (or Şa) Ta Va Wa and Za

(IPA: )

B is pronounced as in bat, C/TS as in Botswana, Ç/CH as in chat, D as in dice, F as in finger, G as in game, H as in house, J as in jacket, K as in cat, L as in lake, M as in mouse, N as in nature, P as in people, R as in better or three, Ɣ/KH as in (Scottish English) loch, S as in sun, Ş/SH as in shore, T as in time, V as in victory, W as in whale, Z as in zebra.

9.4 Syllables and phonotactics
Balaisa phonotactics has the following structure: 1. (CC)V(CC)(V)V(C)  (also (CC)LV(C), long vowel)

EXAMPLES


 * 1) Zatra. Yesterday (CVCCV)
 * 2) Kiō. Today (CVLV)
 * 3) En (VC)

10. ACCENT

 * 1) The ACCENT or STRESS of NOUNS and ADVERBS always falls on the next-to-last syllable [vowel]. (Even if a preffix or suffix is added, STRESS always must fall on the next-to-last syllable. Example: pūr - city. purīme - to the city).

If there are two vowels in that next-to-last syllable (diphthong), ACCENT or STRESS will always fall on the second vowel.

EXAMPLES

dostin - friends

mābian - rapidly


 * 1) NOUNS with only one syllable will be marked with a “ - ” on top to lengthen it.

EXAMPLES

Şỹ- (The) book.

luōg- place, local


 * 1) The ACCENT or STRESS of VERBS always falls on the last syllable [vowel], VERBS will thus have a tilde “-” mark on the last syllable [vowel], lengthening and thus accentuating it.

EXAMPLES

aihē - I have.

jaihetā - we had

bāi/baiān Yamaguchi zimamedē haigadāduā - mrs. Yamaguchi wants to enter into the room -


 * 1) The ACCENT or STRESS of ADJECTIVES always falls on last syllable before the “-i” adjective marker..

EXAMPLE

Ota runanvē kiō şogā aravitā- I wanted to talk with a lot of people today (and I could).


 * 1) If there are two or more “-” tildes in the same word, the ACCENT or STRESS shall always fall on the LAST VOWEL with a “-” tilde on it. Even if it is a NOUN, the “-” has priority for ACCENT or STRESS.

EXAMPLE

Dostīvē.- With my friend.

11. COMPOUND WORDS
COMPOUND WORDS are formed by simple juxtaposition of words (the main word stands at the end); the grammatical endings are also viewed as independent words.

Depending upon the sound produced when the two words are put together, the speaker may wish to insert a vowel between the two. If this is done, the vowel should be an -I-.

EXAMPLE

LOVE-FILL-ED- HABIFILERĒI (HAB-(I)-FILE-(RĒ) -I-) “Full of love”

However, that -I- is mostly ommited.

STEAM-SHIP- VAPŞAF - Steamship

12. NEGATIVES
1. VERBS

The negative form of a verb can be obtained by adding the prefix NX-(A, O, U; E, or U added depending on which was the first vowel. Apply major vowel harmony before the verb’s person inflexion. (Guarani)

EXAMPLE

Hebolnōiraku, zatra şidogā neheilajāk. (nx + olajak= nolajak. It/he/she won’t come)

As he is sick, he won’t come to work tomorrow.

Kiō najatabekuārāɣ, enko cantīme iruşō! We haven’t eaten today yet, let’s go to a restaurant!

I don’t want to eat this cake. Kekiēum natabetai.

Nasasolve, siō ijak? If I don’t solve, who will (do it)?

2. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

Just as verbs, the negative form of an adjective can be obtained by adding NX- at the beginning of the adjective, adverb, preposition or postposition plus "i" form. (Guarani)

nozenmēisym, ota henkanim jaifaraɣnaito. If it’s not perfect, we’ll still have to do many changes.*

ki nonœ̄vi, asihāi. This (one) is not new, I’m sure*.

ɣenuɣ mābian nehesambundi of Neɣenuɣi mābian hesambundi He is not walking fastly enough or He is walking not fastly enough.

(Present atributive sentences, as in Semitic, Japonic, Quechuan, Turkic and other language's families, don't use the verb "to be", which is eluded. The andjective is used as if it was a verb itself. Example: My house is blue. Hasatī oiasrāi

3. NOUNS:

The negative of a noun or adverb can be obtained by adding the preposition ɣen / khen.

EXAMPLES

Purinidē ɣen runa oseikā - in this city lives no one.

(Germanic F. Dutch “geen”)

Arazoni ɣen banfam ihē - This problem has no solution.

When another NEGATIVE affix is present, the prefix NX- of verb, adjective and adverb negatives [English no, not] are omitted.

EXAMPLES

ɣen mūru aisēta - I didn’t say anyting / I said nothing. (NEVER: “ɣen mum nasēta”)

Purinidē ɣenru oseikā - in this city lives no one