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Theories Organize by specific area of development- Bronfrenbrenner, Moral development, physical development, etc. Citation for Dynamic Systems: Gleick, J.  (1987). Chaos: Making a New Science. Penguin Books.

Focus on risk factors. Revise list for both prenatal and postnatal. Link to relevant Wikipedia pages. Prenatal development page "Factors Influencing Growth" needs citations and updated information.

Guoyao, W., Bazer, F. W., Cudd, T. A., Meininger, C. J. & Spencer, T. E. (2004). Maternal nutrition and fetal development (2004). The Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 134, Issue 9, 1 September, Pages 2169, 2172, https://doi.org.10.1092/jn/134/9.2169

From Prenatal Development

Intrauterine growth restriction is one of the causes of low birth weight associated with over half of neonatal deaths.


 * Poverty

Poverty has been linked to poor prenatal care and has been an influence on prenatal development. Women in poverty are more likely to have children at a younger age, which results in low birth weight. Many of these expecting mothers have little education and are therefore less aware of the risks of smoking, drinking alcohol, and drug use – other factors that influence the growth rate of a fetus. Women in poverty are more likely to have diseases that are harmful to the fetus.


 * Mother's age

Women between the ages of 16 and 35 have a healthier environment for a fetus than women under 16 or over 35.[citation needed] Women between this age gap are more likely to have fewer complications. Women over 35 are more inclined to have a longer labor period, which could potentially result in death of the mother or fetus. Women under 16 and over 35 have a higher risk of preterm labor (premature baby), and this risk increases for women in poverty, African Americans, and women who smoke. Young mothers are more likely to engage in high risk behaviors, such as using alcohol, drugs, or smoking, resulting in negative consequences for the fetus.[citation needed] Premature babies from young mothers are more likely to have neurological defects that will influence their coping capabilities – irritability, trouble sleeping, constant crying for example. There is a risk of Down syndrome for infants born to those aged over 40 years. Young teenaged mothers (younger than 16) and mothers over 35 are more exposed to the risks of miscarriages, premature births, and birth defects.


 * Drug use

Eleven percent of fetuses are exposed to illicit drug use during pregnancy.[citation needed] Maternal drug use occurs when drugs ingested by the pregnant woman are metabolized in the placenta and then transmitted to the fetus. When using drugs (narcotics), there is a greater risk of birth defects, low birth weight, and a higher rate of death in infants or stillbirths. Drug use will influence extreme irritability, crying, and risk for SIDS once the fetus is born. The chemicals in drugs can cause an addiction in the babies once they are born. Marijuana will slow the fetal growth rate and can result in premature delivery. It can also lead to low birth weight, a shortened gestational period and complications in delivery. Heroin will cause interrupted fetal development, stillbirths, and can lead to numerous birth defects. Heroin can also result in premature delivery, creates a higher risk of miscarriages, result in facial abnormalities and head size, and create gastrointestinal abnormalities in the fetus. There is an increased risk for SIDS, dysfunction in the central nervous system, and neurological dysfunctions including tremors, sleep problems, and seizures. The fetus is also put at a great risk for low birth weight and respiratory problems. Cocaine use results in a smaller brain, which results in learning disabilities for the fetus. Cocaine puts the fetus at a higher risk of being stillborn or premature. Cocaine use also results in low birthweight, damage to the central nervous system, and motor dysfunction.


 * Alcohol

Maternal alcohol use leads to disruptions of the fetus's brain development, interferes with the fetus's cell development and organization, and affects the maturation of the central nervous system. Even small amounts of alcohol use can cause lower height, weight and head size at birth and higher aggressiveness and lower intelligence during childhood. Fetal alcohol syndrome disorder (FASD) is a developmental disorder that is a consequence of heavy alcohol intake by the mother during pregnancy. Children with FASD have a variety of distinctive facial features, heart problems, and cognitive problems such as developmental disabilities, attention difficulties, and memory deficits.


 * Smoking and nicotine

When a mother smokes during pregnancy the fetus is exposed to nicotine, tar, and carbon monoxide. Nicotine results in less blood flow to the fetus because it constricts the blood vessels. Carbon monoxide reduces the oxygen flow to the fetus. The reduction of blood and oxygen flow may result in miscarriage, stillbirth, low birth weight, and premature births. Exposure to secondhand smoke leads to higher risks of low birth weight and childhood cancer.


 * Diseases

If a mother is infected with a disease, the placenta cannot always filter out pathogens. Babies can be born with venereal diseases transmitted by the mother.


 * Mother's diet and physical health

An adequate nutrition is needed for a healthy fetus. A lack of iron results in anemia in the fetus, the lack of calcium can result in poor bone and teeth formation, and the lack of protein can lead to a smaller fetus and mental retardation. Generally prenatal care gives an improved result in the newborn.


 * Mother's prenatal depression

A study found that mother's prenatal depression was associated with adverse perinatal outcomes such as slower fetal growth rates. It appears that prenatal maternal cortisol levels play a role in mediating these outcomes.


 * Low birth weight

Low birth weight increases an infants risk of long-term growth and cognitive and language deficits. It also results in a shortened gestational period and can lead to prenatal complications.


 * Stress

Stress during pregnancy can impact the development of the embryo. Reilly (2017) states that stress can come from many forms of life events such as community, family, financial issues, and natural causes. While a woman is pregnant, stress from outside sources can take a toll on the growth in the womb that may affect the child’s learning and relationships when born. For instance, they may have behavioral problems and might be antisocial. The stress that the mother experiences affects the fetus and the fetus’ growth which can include the fetus’ nervous system (Reilly, 2017). Stress can also lead to low birth weight. Even after avoiding other factors like alcohol, drugs, and being healthy, stress can have its impacts whether families know it or not. Many women who deal with maternal stress do not seek treatment. Similar to stress, Reilly stated that in recent studies, researchers have found that pregnant women who show depressive symptoms are not as attached and bonded to their child while it is in the womb (2017).


 * Environmental toxins

Exposure to environmental toxins in pregnancy lead to higher rates of miscarriage, sterility, and birth defects. Toxins include fetal exposure to lead, mercury, and ethanol or hazardous environments.

From Child Development Risk Factors

Child development can be negatively influenced by a number of risk factors, many of which have been studied in developing countries. They can be broadly grouped under two headings.

Genetic/Hereditary

Prenatal

Chromosomal abnormalities

Post-natal

Environmental factors

Prenatal

Pregnancy- maternal age, maternal nutrition, maternal drug use (alcohol, nicotine, caffeine, cocaine, opioids exposure to chemicals (lead, DDT, radiation), stress, exposure to viruses

Post-natal

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Malnutrition, maternal depression and maternal substance abuse are three of these factors which have received particular attention by researchers, however, many more factors have been considered.