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Maureen E. "Mo" Raymo (born 1959) is an American paleoclimatologist and marine geologist. She was the Co-Founding Dean of the Columbia Climate School, (July 2020-June 2023), Director of the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University, the G. Unger Vetlesen Professor of Earth & Environmental Sciences, and Director of the Lamont–Doherty Core Repository at the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University. She is the first female climate scientist and first female scientist to head the institution. She also planned, led, and taken part in several scientific missions that have required months at sea and on land.

Raymo has done pioneering work on ice ages, the geologic temperature record, and climate, examining and theorizing about global cooling and warming and transitions in ice age cycles. Her work underlies fundamental ideas in paleoceanography including the uplift weathering hypothesis, the "41,000-year problem", the Pliocene sea-level paradox, and the Lisiecki-Raymo δ18O stack.

Among other awards and honors, Raymo became in 2014 the first woman to win the Wollaston Medal for geology, which had been awarded for 183 years at the time. She was described in her nomination as ".. one of the foremost and influential figures in the last 30 years".

Background
Raymo was born in Los Angeles and attended Brown University, receiving her Sc.B. Geology in 1982. She then attended Columbia University, where she earned her M.A. in geology in 1985, her M.Phil. in geology in 1988, and her Ph.D. in geology in 1989.

Research
Raymo is known for developing (along with William Ruddiman and Philip Froelich) the Uplift-Weathering Hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, tectonic uplift of areas such as the Tibetan plateau has contributed to surface cooling. During phases of mountain range formation, there are at the surface many minerals which can chemically interact with carbon dioxide. During the process of chemical weathering, there is a net removal of CO2 from the atmosphere, as a result of which the temperature on the ground decreases. She and her colleagues initially suggested that measuring the proportions of isotopes of strontium (Sr) in deep ocean sediments could substantiate the Uplift-Weathering Hypothesis but soon recognized that ambiguities in the sources of Sr to the ocean existed. Over twenty years later, the hypothesis continues to be debated and studied. Raymo is also well known for her interdisciplinary work, particularly using palaeoceanography to better understand the thermohaline circulation and pacing of ice ages over the Pleistocene and Pliocene and how they link to changes in orbital forcing and Milankovitch climate dynamics. Raymo, along with her collaborator Lorraine Lisiecki, has made important contributions to palaeoclimate science and stratigraphic by means of oxygen isotope analysis of foraminifera from sample cores of deep ocean sediments including publishing the widely used 5 million year LR04 benthic foraminifera stable oxygen isotope stack record. Despite much of her contribution in research and studying of the earth and its history such as her hypothesis of Uplift-Weathering and how it has impacted the earth surface and climate. Her involvement in research on ocean climate cycles and past ocean climate and levels. Some of her more recent work is on remodeling past warmer climates and its effect on sea level and ice volume, in response to the effects of global warming on ocean sea level. Other types of  research that she is doing is on the impact of melting ice sheets towards sea level change, finding out how to read different levels of ice sheet as to when it is considered safe and not safe. Lastly, understanding the relationships between sea level changes and its effect on the coastline.

Projects
Maureen Raymo has been a part of many geological research projects that contributed to the estimation of the Earth’s age. Primarily, Raymo’s focus is within the Pliocene-Pleistocene Period, estimated to have occurred over three million years ago. Raymo is credited for her collaboration on nine related projects and has published papers on each.

PLIOMAX: Pliocene maximum sea levels

In this multi-organizational project, Raymo and collaborators worked towards more accurate estimations of sea levels during the Pliocene period, with the intent to improve ice sheet models used in research and predict the long-term effects of greenhouse gases on the Earth. Upon completion of the PLIOMAX project, several papers were written on the findings and their significance.

Pleistocene sea-level studies

Similar to the PLIOMAX project, Raymo also worked on the Pleistocene sea-level study, which looked to determine the estimated sea levels of the Pleistocene period, over 400,000 years ago.Previous studies taking place in the Bermuda and Bahama islands indicated two different hypotheses on the collapsing of ice sheets. One study stated the collapse of the West Antarctic ice sheet and Greenland ice sheet occurred along with the significant melting of the East Antarctic Ice sheet, whereas another claimed a massive tsunami during the Marine Isotope stage 11 caused emplacement. Raymo determined an estimate that the sea level had risen 6 to 13 metres above the present-day sea level, indicating that the Greenland Ice sheet and the West Antarctic Ice Sheet did collapse during the warm Pleistocene period, while the East Antarctic Ice Sheet did not significantly change in volume. This was determined when Raymo accounted for post-glacial crustal subsidence of the studied areas, over the course of the uniquely long interglacial period.

Milankovitch Climate Dynamics

The purpose of the Milankovitch Climate Dynamic Project was to investigate the physical mechanisms responsible for the 41,000-year glacial cycles of the late Pliocene and early Pleistocene periods. This research was primarily based on climate proxy records and supported by climate model results. It was concluded that variation in ice volume at precession and obliquity was directly connected to northern summer insolation, while the eccentricity component of the ice age cycle was caused by non-linear amplification mechanisms that were potentially phase-locked to summer insolation variation. Raymo investigated whether variations in the insolation gradient between high and low latitudes could have a large influence on high-latitude climate and ice volume. A single process model depicting the interactions with ice sheets allowed for testing of the insolation gradient influence on ice sheet growth and ablation. The study concluded that insolation gradients have a strong influence on meridional energy transport, and possible the strength of wind systems, but did. not explain the dominance of 41-kyr observed. The study was retested with new experimental processes, allowing for a more dynamic Antarctic ice sheet. Marine-based ice sheet margins replaced terrestrial ice margins around east Antarctica, causing a shift to ‘in-phase’ behavior of North and South ice sheets, also strengthening a 23-yyr cycle in the marine record.

Thermohaline circulation of the Atlantic Ocean

Climate models have been used to predict that enhanced temperatures and runoff in the Arctic-North Atlantic region could reduce sea ice cover and impact deep water convection in the Norwegian-Greenland Sea (NGS) region, a change that could have far-reaching effects on regional and global ocean circulation and climate (Raymo, Rind and Ruddiman, 1990). DSDP and ODP cores were used to examine longer geochemical records from the North Atlantic. Collected data suggested that the vertical structure of water columns at intermediate depths did not change significantly between glacial and interglacial time, despite changes in ice volume and iceberg delivery from nearby landmasses. These findings suggested that the past two primary sources of North deep water may have had different characteristic values over the Pleistocene era. In conclusion, it was suspected that current open sea ice conditions in the Norwegian-Greenland Sea are relatively rare and the deep water that forms in the region today is geologically unusual.

Plio-Pleistocene millennial-scale climate variability

High sedimentation cores from the late Pleistocene glacial cycles show that climate has varied continuously as short as a thousand years. Using previously recorded data Raymo investigated whether such millennial-scale oscillations occur under different climate boundary conditions, more specifically warmer climates. Using cores recovered from ODP Leg 162, Raymo documented the first early Pleistocene evidence for millennial-scale climate variability in records of iceberg discharge. Her findings suggested that such changes may be a pervasive and long-term characteristic of Earth’s climate (Raymo et al. (1998)). Raymo concluded that the mid-Pliocene warm interval was a time of relative climate stability. Conditions warmer than the present day did not necessarily enhance millennial scale variability in the climate system.

Time scale development

The time-scale development project provided a stratigraphic depiction of the global ice volume and temperature history of the deep ocean during the Plio-Pleistocene period. The model provides the geological community with an important stratigraphic tool, which could be used to facilitate the comparison of widely distributed marine climate records. This also gave revised identification and numbering of early-era marine isotope stages (2005 Lisiecki & Raymo).

Uplift-weathering hypothesis

The Uplift-Weathering Hypothesis proposed that the Ice Age was caused by enhanced chemical weathering and consumption of atmospheric CO2 in the mountainous regions of the Earth, especially the Himalayas. The Indian subcontinent collided with Asia creating the mountains which intensified the Asian monsoon. That rainfall combined with high mechanical erosion rates in the mountains may have caused much higher chemical weathering in the region. These chemical weathering reactions consumed atmospheric CO2, weakening the global greenhouse effect and causing the growth of continent-wide ice sheets at both poles. By 1992, Raymo’s original proposal that the marine strontium isotope record showed that chemical weathering had increased over the Cenozoic period was shown to be unsuitable for testing, due to its ambiguity. A major criticism was that chemical weathering rates on land could not increase without the enhanced metamorphic delivery of CO2 to the atmosphere, otherwise, CO2 would completely be stripped from the atmosphere and within a few hundred thousand years the Earth would be completely frozen. Raymo agreed that negative feedback was needed to stabilize the CO2 levels and argued that this feedback could come through the organic carbon sub-cycle. [Raymo & Ruddiman, 1992]. Since then, new proxies have been developed in collaboration with the hypothesis, and enrich the debate, while also providing support for the Uplift Weathering hypothesis

Neogene ocean and climate history

The Neogene Ocean and Climate History Project used 45 records from Benthic and Planktonic Foraminifera and globally distributed sites to reconstruct records. An estimated global ice volume increase of 0.4 per mil was determined, the equivalent to an overall sea level decline of 43m. Northern Hemisphere Glaciation (NHG) started earlier than presumed, as early as 3.6 Ma and ended at 2.4 Ma. This long-term increase suggests slow, tectonic forcing such as modification of ocean gateways or mountain building as the root cause of NHG.

OPD leg 162

The Ocean Drilling Program Leg 162 sailed in the summer of 1995, south of Iceland. The project was suggested by Raymo along with a colleague, and the cores provided the first chance to study the long-term evolution of sub-Milankovitch climate variations in the North Atlantic, from the pre-glacial Pliocene period to the present day.

Publications
Maureen Raymo has been described by several sources as a significant figure in her research domain. Her scholarly contributions encompass over 300 published articles, she has not personally written this many, but has looked over many studies and publications for other researches to ensure their validity before publication. This volume of publications highlights her active role in the scientific community. Her work has garnered attention and is referenced in various scientific discussions. The following is a compilation of her own written research papers.


 * Raymo, C. and M. E. Raymo, 1989, Written In Stone – a Geological History of the Northeastern United States.
 * Jansen, E., M.E. Raymo, and P. Blum, editors, 1996, Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Initial Reports, Vol. 162: College Station, TX (Ocean Drilling Program)
 * Raymo, M. E., E. Jansen, P. Blum, and T. Herbert, editors, 1999, Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, Vol. 162: College Station, TX (Ocean Drilling Program)
 * Weber, M.E., Raymo, M.E., Peck, V.L., and Williams, T., 2018. Expedition 382 Scientific Prospectus: Iceberg Alley and South Falkland Slope Ice and Ocean Dynamics. International Ocean Discovery Program. https://doi.org/​10.14379/​iodp.sp.382.2018
 * Weber, M.E., Raymo, M.E., Peck, V.L., and Williams, T., 2019. Expedition 382 Preliminary Report: Iceberg Alley and Subantarctic Ice and Ocean Dynamics. International Ocean Discovery Program. https://doi.org/​10.14379/​iodp.pr.382.2019

Awards and honors
Regarding the Awards and Honors Article, the information is placed in the wrong structure. For example, the author explains how in 2016 she was elected a member of the national academy of sciences, but then continues to in the next two sentences the awards she received in 2014. The years are neither connected with each other as one did not affect the other which would have explained this placement. The beginning of the very last sentence has no importance in the article as it was neither an award or honor. As with the continued sentence with the words of professor James Scourse should have been connected to the original sentence explaining her award, not completely separated. In 2014, she received the Milutin Milankovic Medal at the European Geosciences Union’s annual meeting for her use of geochemistry, geology and geophysics to solve paleoclimatology’s big problems. In 2019 she was awarded the Maurice Ewing Medal by the American Geophysical Union. In 2022 she was elected as a Member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Class for Geosciences.