User:Vunil/Tucson artifacts

The Tuscon artifacts are a collection of lead objects reportedly found by Charles E. Manier in 1924 at a site near Tucson, Arizona. Consisting of crosses, swords, and religious/ceremonial paraphernalia, most which contained Hebrew or Latin engraved inscriptions, pictures of temples, leaders' portraits, angels, and even what appears to be a diplodocus dinosaur, they have been interpreted by some as evidence for a Roman Jewish colony of the Early Medieval period in what is now the Southwestern United States. Archaeologists have dismissed the find as a hoax.

Discovery
The Tucson artifacts were found at a location seven miles north of Tuscon by Charles E. Manier and his family while out on a Sunday drive. The name "Calalus" was given to the "terra incognita" (unknown land) based on one of the inscriptions written in Latin and dates to 790 A.D to 900 A.D. according to the Roman numerals on the artifacts themselves (which included the notation A.D.. However, the site contains no other artifacts, no pottery sherds, no broken glass, no human or animal remains, and no sign of hearths or housing.

The lead objects were found in a layer of caliche, soil particles that have been cemented together by lime. The first object removed from the caliche was a crudely cast metal cross that weighed 62 pounds. It was revealed upon cleaning to be two separate crosses that had been riveted together. The cross was initially studied by Frank H. Fowler at Arizona State University, who determined the language inscribed on the artifacts was Latin and translated one phrase as "Calalus, the unknown land". Manier then took the find to the Arizona State Museum to be studied by archaeologist Karl Ruppert. Both Ruppert and Manier returned to the site the next day and recovered a seven pound caliche concretion with objects bearing inscriptions, one of which was a date of 800 A.D.

The Controversy
The Tuscon artifacts were believed by some to represent evidence of a "Roman" colony dating to between 790 - 900 A.D. No other find in this area, or any other finds in the North American continent, have been formally established as placing any Roman or Early Medieval colony in the area.

The dates of the objects are much later than the 5th century decline of the Roman Empire. They also represent a time at which records of European colonies in the Americas are likely to have appeared in historical records. Academic scholars express extreme skepticism that they objects represent any evidence of a Medieval period European colony in Arizona.

A Mexican youth named Timotéo Odohui who supposedly lived near the site and was a sculptor with the ability to craft lead artifacts was identified as the possible perpetrator of a hoax. It has been suggested that his story may have been the product of overenthusiastic speculation by local journalists. However, a craftsman in the area recalled the boy, his love for sculpture of soft metals and his collection of books on foreign languages.

Supporters
In November of 1924, Manier brought his friend Thomas Bent to the site. Bent was so impressed by the find that, believing there was a fortune to be made with further discoveries, he immediately set up a residence in order to homestead the property. Forty years after the discovery, Bent wrote a manuscript of about 350 pages titled "The Tucson Artifacts". However, the document in the Arizona State Museum remains unpublished. Bent presents as a point-by-point argument for the antiquity of the finds and their validity as evidence for a Medieval colony, but this has not been accepted by scholars.

Other supporters have included Lara Coleman Ostrander, a high school history teacher of history and Clifton J. Sarle, a geologist who worked with Ostrander. Both Sarle and Ostrander have made presentations about the Tuscon Artifacts to the press and at academic conferences. The most highly credentialed supporter was Bryon Cummings, dean of Arizona State University and Director of the Arizona State Museum. As the most experienced archaeologist at the university, he presented ten of the artifacts at a meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science as well as to several museums and universities before becoming skeptical of the objects' authenticity. Another advocate for their authenticity was Andrew E. Douglass, an astronomer best known for his discovery of dendrochronology).

Skeptics
George M. B. Hawley was a hardcore opponent of Bent's views about the artifacts who accused Ostrander and Sarle as perpetrators in the hoax. The most prominent skeptics of the artifacts' authenticity and significance have included Frank Fowler, the original translator of the artifacts. His research and demonstrated that the Latin inscriptions on the artifacts could be traced to the works of well-known Classical authors such as Cicero, Virgil and Horace and reproduced texts available in Tuscon at the time. Emil Haury, another archaeologist (and student of Cummings), examined scratches on the surface of the artifacts as well as the excavation and concluded that they had been "planted". Although initially a supporter, Cummings (who later became the president of Arizona State University) eventually concluded that the objects were a hoax.

Reconsidering the Tuscon Artifacts
Cyclone Covey, a professor at Wake Forest University, reopened the controversy in a book titled "Calalus: A Roman Jewish Colony in America from the Time of Charlemagne Through Alfred the Great" (1975). Covey had been in direct contact with Thomas Bent since 1970 and planned to carry out excavations at the site in 1972, but was not allowed due to legal complications. The site has not been explored further.