User:Waygugin/Daeungjeon Hall

Daeungjeon Hall is the main hall of Hwaeomsa, a Buddhist temple in Gurye, Jeollanam-do, South Korea. The hall was constructed in the 1630s by the eminent monk Byeogam Gakseong, and marked the first stage of Hwaeomsa's restoration following the Imjin War. An exemplar of mid-Joseon Dynasty Buddhist architecture, Daeungjeon Hall was designated Treasure 299 in 1963 and is the oldest wooden structure at the temple. It is a single-story wooden hall measuring five bays across and three deep, with a hipped and gabled roof. The inner sanctuary contains a shrine to the trikaya, a triad of the Buddhas Vairocana, Sakyamuni and Rocana. The altar statues of the shrine are Treasure 1548 and the altar paintings are Treasure 1363.

History
Hwaeomsa was founded by the monk Yeongi, likely in the reign of King Gyeongdeok (r. 742–765) of Unified Silla, after which it became one of the most influential monasteries of the Flower Garland school. A new main hall appears to have been constructed where Daeungjeon Hall is today, overlooking the north-east side of the temple courtyard, in the early Goryeo Dynasty. No description of the original building has survived, and it was lost when the temple was burned to the ground in 1593 by Japanese soldiers during the Imjin War. Hwaeomsa remained derelict in the decades that followed until reconstruction began under the leadership of Byeogam Gakseong (1575–1660), a leading monk of 17th-century Joseon. Gakseong was responsible for rebuilding many of the kingdom's most prominent monasteries as well as fortifying Namhansanseong, which earned him great confidence at the court of King Injo (r. 1623–1649).

The most contemporary sources for this period disagree on exactly when construction began. A Chronicle of the Great Temple Hwaeomsa of Jirisan, Gurye County, Honam, a history of Hwaeomsa completed in 1636 by the monk and man of letters Junggwan Haein (b.1567), states that Gakseong arrived at Hwaeomsa in 1630 and completed Daeungjeon Hall by 1636. However, in A Hagiography of the Most Exquisite National Great Zen Master, Bestowed in Reward for Elucidating the Faith —an account of Gakseong written in 1660 by his disciple Baekgok Cheoneung (1617–1680)—it is said that Gakseong did not begin work until 1632.

The construction of Hwaeomsa's main hall occurred amidst a Korean revival in Buddhist architecture that lasted from the end of the Imjin War well into the 18th century. Although it is unknown exactly who provided the funds, Professor Lee Kang-geun suspects that given the poor economic conditions of the post-war era the resources of the temple would likely have been insufficient to construct a building the size of Daeungjeon Hall. The name tablet of the building, which was presented to Hwaeomsa in 1636 and bares the calligraphy of Injo's paternal uncle Prince Uichang (1589–1645), suggests royal patronage. According to Choi Wansu, this display of royal interest by Uichang would have raised the temple's status within the Buddhist community while protecting it from anti-Buddhist government officials.

The names of the more than 100 monks who built the hall are recorded in the Hwaeomsa Chronicle, grouped by their duties: construction, altar statues, roof tiles, paintings, and dancheong. Several of Gakseong's disciples were among the workers, some of who had also assisted him in rebuilding Beopjusa (1605) and Haeinsa (1622), and would later reconstruct Songgwangsa (1636–1641). The majority of the workforce though were monks who had been living in nearby caves, protecting the temple site since Hwaeomsa's destruction, and are listed in the Hwaeomsa Chronicle as the "Most Virtuous Mountain Dwellers". Many of these later went on to rebuild the temples of Tongdosa (1645), Unmunsa (1653), and Yulgoksa (1679) in neighboring Yeongnam.

The hall was renovated in 1757, at which time new altar paintings were produced and the altar statues were re-gilded. The hall was renovated again in 1844, and later in 1915. Following independence the hall was registered as Treasure of South Korea 299 in 1962 and surveyed in 1966 by the Bureau of Cultural Property. The dancheong was repaired in 1971, more repairs followed from 1979 to 1980, and then it was surveyed again in 1986.

Structure
The wooden structure of Daeungjeon Hall is situated on top of a rectangular stone base constructed in the post and lintel style. It is all that has survived of the original main hall, displaying an architectural style representative of late Unified Silla or early Goryeo. The base's granite wall panels are positioned along the edges of slab stones which rest directly on the ground, their surfaces interrupted at intervals by post stones overlaid by lintels. Square inlaid blocks cover the surface of the base, which rises to a height of about 75 cm. Granite staircases with triangular slabs for railings are located at the center of the base's front and parallel to the hall's side entrances. The column bases are made from uncarved stone and have uneven heights; some are comparatively flat while for others the bottoms of the wooden columns had to be carved into the right shape to fit on top.

The hall is a single story building measuring 19.2 m along the length and 11.3 m along the breadth. The walls are sectioned into five by three bays, the second most common arrangement used during the 17th century. The walls are made up of sixteen tapered wooden columns measuring about 5 m high. The shape of the columns is irregular, their natural appearance and beauty having largely been preserved. The corner columns are thicker as they have to carry a greater amount of the load generated by the roof. The columns are connected laterally at the heads with mortise and tenon joints, over which have been laid large lintels to give further support.

The roof is hipped and gabled. It uses a system of multiple interlocking bracket clusters to support a set of three purlins on the interior and exterior of the building. There is one cluster atop each column head and a further two intercolumnar clusters per bay, except for the central bays which have three. Although the bracket ends show influence from late Goryeo, the lotus-bud crockets found on the upper brackets (fourth and fifth) and cornices of the corner columns were a 17th-century feature common to temple halls in this region. Unlike its contemporaries, though, there are neither ornamental dragon heads protruding from the corner brackets, nor wall paintings in the yellow spaces between the bracket clusters. The corners of the eaves are buttressed with long poles positioned on the bases. Proportionally, the height of the roof appears almost the same as the height from the bottom of the base to the eaves. The bracketing on the interior of the hall well exemplifies the style and characteristics of the mid-Joseon Dynasty. On the columnar bracket clusters of the front wall, the bracket ends are carved in a series of overlapping lotus bud arabesques. Meanwhile, the remaining intercolumnar brackets, as well as all the brackets of the side and rear walls, have such arabesques on the upper fourth and fifth bracket ends only. The ends of the bracket bows are likewise decorated with flower patterns. The spaces between the bracket clusters are pained yellow and without any murals.

There are entrances on all four sides of the building, a style that became universal in the later part of the Joseon Dynasty. Along the front each of the five bays has a set of three-panel doors. The diagonal latticework is ultramarine, and a rectangular window of vertical cross-lattice spans each set of doors over top. The doors of the central bay open inwards while the remainder open outwards. The lower portion of the rear and side walls are painted in azure, while bay-length rectangular yellow panels occupy the upper portion, providing ample space for wall-paintings although currently there are none. Each of these panels is further vertically subdivided into three sections. The three central-most bays of the rear wall each have a set of two-panel doors of belt-lattice (ddisal), while single-panel doors are installed towards the facade on both side walls.

Along each of the side walls, the central bay is completely occupied by a large wooden X-figure 4 m and 3.74 cm across, that appears to reinforce the walls of the hall. Lee Kang-geun believes that these were not part of the building's original design and only added later on. The X-shape wooden beams on the side walls are also visible from the inside.

The interior of Daeungjeon Hall has an area of 218.9 m2. A concentric set of interior columns measuring three bays by one surrounds the altar. These consist of four columns which form a wall behind the altar three bays long, from each of which hang an altar painting. There are two more columns at the front corners of the altar which support the main crossbeam of the hall. The presence of these two forward columns is unlike most contemporary halls, which have no columns at all in front of their altars. The altar has been erected 1.25 cm back from the center of the hall, with the effect of creating a larger and more open worship space. Wooden flooring covers every surface of the base, except for the altar which stands directly on its surface. The ceiling is double tiered, with a lower ceiling surrounding he edges of the walls and a recessed upper ceiling of coffered panels.

The use of double transverse beams to connect the side walls to the main crossbeams is unique to Daeungjeon Hall. The lower concavely shaped beam is accompanied from above by a bulkier beam that curves upwards toward the top of the interior column.

Inner sanctuary
Daeungjeon Hall's wooden altar is distinctive for its prominently high dais, which reaches a height of 1.36 m from the ground. Similar contemporary examples of this style are found only in the main halls of Beomeosa and Jeondeungsa. The altar occupies the three central-most bays towards the rear of the building and exhibits the three-tier composition common to Buddhist altars crafted in the 17th century. The lower section resembles a table, the legs adorned with crockets while an arabesque pattern of undulating lotuses has been symmetrically embossed between them. The middle section has three staggered horizontal layers of sunken relief panels alternating between circles and four-petaled flowers, the borders of each panel carved like jeweled bands. An identically styled but narrower fourth layer forms the upper section of the altar on which sits the dais for the three altar statues. The base of the dais was crafted in a style similar to the lower tier and extends along the entire length of the altar, with three raised statue platforms spread out equally across it.

A set of three wooden canopies form niches around the altar statues in the shape of Buddha Halls. Elaborately crafted in the layered ""-character style, each canopy is identical but for some slight differences in detailing. The bracketing of the upper section supports nine purlins which wrap around the front and sides while a large lotus surrounded by crockets is at the center of the canopy's ceiling. The single-level ceiling and absence of cloud-dragon motifs clearly distinguish the canopy as mid-Joseon. The upper structure is supported by four columns joined at the heads by tenons and overladen with lintels that bear simple cornices of lotus-bud crockets. Underneath, openwork panels of four-petaled flower motifs rest on lintels midway down the lower part of the canopy. Carvings of lotuses in full bloom, half bloom, or sprouting buds adorn the ends of the columns which appear to dangle in the air. Meanwhile, the lower lintels and columns are elaborately decorated with the same openwork crockets of undulating lotuses as the altar. Two poles stretch from the front corners of the canopy to the altar, a semi-suspended style which marked a transition between the earlier four-pole Buddha Hall style of canopy and the fully-suspended style of later pieces.

Adornments
Delicately written in white, the Chinese characters for "Daeungjeon Hall" appear on the name tablet against a black background. The inscription indicates it was produced in 1636 by Prince Uichang, the eighth son of King Seonjo (r. 1567–1608). Composed of vertical planks of wood attached side by side and enclosed in an arabesque decorated frame, it is the oldest name tablet at Hwaeomsa.

Verse couplets (juryun) are written onto six tablets hanging from each of the columns at the front of the building. The first stanza of four lines is a quotation from the influential Buddhist text Hand Mirrors of Seon Practice by Baekpa Geungseon (1767–1852), while the last two lines are from Chart of the Avataṃsaka One Vehicle Dharmadhātu by Uisang (625–702).

From right side of the building to left they read:

1. 四五百株垂柳巷 A village enveloped in a myriad of crimson flowers and willows, 2. 樓閣重重華藏界 Standing row upon row, truly a pavilion in the lotus treasury! 3. 二三千尺管絃樓 Grand pavilions of flutes and zithers, 4. 紫羅帳裏橵眞珠 Pearls laid out beneath a violet canopy.'' 5. 雨寶益生滿虛空 The voild-filling merits of the Dharma are instructive to sentient beings, 6. 衆生隨器得利益 Who benefit according to their patience.

The signature of Namyong at the bottom of the sixth verse tablet indicates that they were produced by the calligrapher Kim Yonggu (1907–1982), of Gwangju.

Shrine
The inner sanctuary contains a shrine to the trikaya, a triad of the Buddhas Vairocana, Sakyamuni and Rocana. This is unusual since temples of the Flower Garland school have generally worshipped Vairocana in a structure called Daejeokgwangjeon Hall (大寂光殿, The Hall of Great Peace and Light), while Daeungjeon Hall would ordinarily be reserved for the devotion of Sakyamuni. The trikaya is a key concept of Mahayana Buddhism which expresses the different modes of being the Buddha can be manifested in. Vairocana represents Dharmakaya, the void-like unmanifested mode of the Buddha. The heavenly mode, Sambhogakaya, serves as an object of worship and is represented by Rocana. Nirmanakaya, which is representedby Sakyamuni, is the earthly mode of the Buddha that has assumed physical form to help liberate sentient beings from samsara.

Altar statues


The statue of Vairocana is attended by Rocana to the left and Sakyamuni to the right. The hands of Vairocana are in the Vajra mudrā, Sakyamuni's are in the Bhumisparsha mudrā and those of Rocana are in a variation of the Vitarka mudrā whereby the index finger and the thumb touch while the remaining fingers are extended. By the mid-Joseon, this combination of Buddhas had become ubiquitous in painting form including such examples as the Trikāya gwebul of Gapsa and the altar paintings of Cheoggoksa and Haeinsa, but was very rarely seen as statues.

The Chronicle says that the statues were executed by the monks Cheongheon, Yeong-i, Ingyun and Eungwon at the request of the monks Namuk and Heibo. Cheongheon and Ingyun were two of the most eminent Buddhist sculptors of the 17th century. Extant examples of Cheongheon's work include the small Trikāya statues of Beopjusa (1626), the seven Buddhas of Ssangyesa (1639), as well as statues at Songgwangsa (1641) and Eungseoksa (1643). Ingyun was equally prolific having worked on pieces at Geumsansa (1615), Ssangyesa (1623), Songgwangsa (1624 and 1628), Gwisinsa (1633), and Heungguksa (1648 and 1655). Yeong-i was likely to have been a disciple of Cheongheon, and although Eungwon is listed after Ingyun, he was an important sculptor in his own right, with Ingyun having worked under him twice at Songgwangsa.

The statue of Vairocana measures 2.7 m in height. The statue has a commanding presence but the body appears short compared to the size of the face. The ushnisha atop the head is indistinct, while the urna bulges from the forehead, and a half-moon shaped jewel protrudes from the Buddha's finely crafted, curled-up hair. The forehead is wide and there is a sagacious expression on his long, rectangular face. The Buddha's slender long eyes gently rise upwards towards the sides. The nose protrudes outwards—a prevailing characteristic common to Korean Buddhist sculpture of the 17th century—and the thick mouth is closed and expressionless. The upper body is square, although the shoulders appear narrow compared to the size of the face. The Buddha is seated in the lotus position, the wide breadth of the legs giving the icon a very stable appearance.

The Buddha is wearing outer robes, a great coat, and a wide waistcoat, shaped like a belt. The robes are draped over both shoulders, and wrap once more over the right shoulder creating a half-moon. The ends of the outer robes descend along the right shoulder into the great coat in front of the stomach, forming a w-shape. The great coat drapes over the legs and finished off by forming a lotus bud over the left knee below which are two simple, straight folds. The creases over the right leg fold loosely over the ankle and flow outward like a fan, followed underneath by two more lines like the left side. The two hands are clasped together in a gesture of thanks, right hand over left. The drapery, facial expression and mudrā are consistent with Cheongheon's earlier work.

The statue of Sakyamuni is nearly identical but slightly smaller than that of Vairocana, measuring 2.5 m in height, while the drapery differs somewhat. The outer robes wrap around the right side from shoulder to the elbow a second time, giving way and folding into the right side of the chest. The right hand is laid over the knee, while the left hand rests even overly the leg palm open and face up, the middle finger and the third finger touching.

The statue of Rocana measues 2.5 m in height. Sharing many characteristics of Bodhisattva statues, it is the only known Korean example of a Trikāya statue to wear the crown of a Bodhisattva. In contrast to the coarse lines of the other Buddhas, the statue of Rocana displays more elaboration with its drapery and magnificent crown. Seated in the lotus position, the breadth of the legs are wide compared to the shoulders. Like the other two statues, the face is square and the eyes and nose are also the same. However, the fleshy chin appears larger, the protruding parts of the eyes are thicker, and both lips are curved whereas on the other two the lower lip is straight and the only top curved. The topknot rises upward for the crown to rest on. The hairs on the head are highly detailed. Several strands of hair twist downward in front of the ears. The surface of the crown is decorated with lotus arabesques. At the center of the lower section is a large flower surrounded by ornaments which dangle outwards from the shaped like flames or clouds. On the upper section a phoenix is surrounded by flames, cloud and flower ornaments. There are also extensions which billow down the sides of the crown like flames. The robes are draped over both shoulders, the ends flowing down the right shoulder shoulder, tucking into the great coat along the front with further deep folds below. Although the folds on the legs of the other two statues appear straight, on Rocana they appear curved and shaped like the ribs of a fan. The drapery is very similar to that of the statues of Sakyamuni at Heunguksa by Ingyun, and Simgoksa, as well as the statue of Amitābha at Mihwangsa.

All three statues were regilded in 1757 by the monks Jeongin, Dohwan, Taechong, Hoyeong, and Jiseon while repairs were being made to the hall. The statues have been designated Treasure 1548.

Altar paintings
A set of three altar paintings depicting the trikaya (samsinbultaeng) were enshrined inside Daeungjeon Hall in 1757. Although the three Buddhas were occasionally painted on a single canvas, the three canvas format of Hwaeomsa was more common, with other contemporary examples of this motif extant at Tongdosa, Seonunsa, Daeheungsa and Haeinsa. The altar paintings were executed by a guild of monks under the direction of Euigyeom (a.1710–1760), a renowned Buddhist artist active around Jirisan in the early 18th century. These works represent the last of his career, and although records show that Euigyeom was personally involved in painting only Rocana, the overall design of all three pieces is thought to have been conceived by him. The repeating curves of the Bodhisattva robes, in particular, is indicative of his style; however the relatively dull color scheme, especially in comparison to the brilliant coloring of Euigyeom's previous work, represent a trend towards the style of his disciples. Fourteen monks in all were involved in the execution of the paintings: Vairocana was painted by Jeongin, Dohwan, Taechong, Hoyeong and Jiseon; Rocana by Euigyeom, Hoemil, Jaehun, Chaeoun, and Gyean; and Sakyamuni by Saekmin, Suhwal, Ueun, and Bo-il. Their names were recorded in the painting record (hwagi), written in black ink against a red background, visible in the bottom right corner of each of the silk canvases. In 2003 the paintings were designated Treasure 1363.

Vairocana
Vairocana is enthroned at the center of the painting on a lotus throne atop an altar of Sumidan. He is seated in the lotus position, his hands in the vajra mudra, the index finger protruding outwards. The ushinisha at the top of his head is wide and low, while a large gem is visible at the peal of the topknot. Eight rays of light are being emitted from various parts of the body: one from the jewel atop the topknot, one from each side of the head, one from each of the shoulders, one from each of the knees, and one from below the right foot. Vairocana's facial features are centrally positioned on his round and broad face. Beneath his descending eyebrows, his slanted eyes gently rise upwards, the pupils light brown, and there is light shadowing at the ends of each eye. The nose is blunt, the lips are small, and there is a slightly curled beard at the end of the chin. The teeth have been outline in yellow and white, instead of gold. The Buddha's broad shoulders sit atop a fleshy but stately torso. Draped over both shoulders, the robes are deep red with contrasting touches of green and blue. The outer robes are sporadically covered in small circles, while the hems are decorated with elaborate patterns. Around the ankles the ends of the inner robes are serrated. A belt is tried around the inner robes.Surrounding Vairocana is a body length nimbus colored in green bordered by lines of light gray, crimson red, and green, followed by layers of decorative jewels and flame patterns.

Surrounding the head of Vairocana are the Buddhas of the four directions: Bhaisajyaguru of the east; Ratnaketu of the south; Amitabha of the west; and Acala of the north. Vairocana is attended to left by the Bodhisattvas Bhaisajya-samusata, Mahasthamaprapta, and Dipankara, and to the right by Bhaiṣajyarāja, Avalokiteśvara, and Maitreya. At the forefront, from left to right, stand Vajragarhba, Samantabhadra, Manjusri, and Sarvanivarana-Vishkambhin. Towards the top of the canvas are the spirits Bokdeokdaesin and Hogyedaesin, wearing an elephant and lion mask, respectively. In the distance are two clouds each carrying three Buddhas. The canvas measures 4.38 m by 2.95 m.

The Bodhisattvas each carry their respective implements. Bhaisajya-samusata is seen holding a vajra, Samantabhadra a lotus flower, Manjusri a cintamani, and Sarvanivarana-Vishkambhin a book of scriptures. The hands of Bhaisajya-samusata are clasped together, while Mahasthamaprapta is holding a 연화지 in his left hand and a lotus blossom in his right, and Dipankara is holding a cintamani. The hands of Bhaiṣajyarāja are clasped together, Avalokiteśvara is holding a vajra bell, and Maitreya a dragon flower.

They are also adorned with crowns and is decorate various decorations, such as bracelets. Each Bodhisattva's dress and implements are slightly different. The hems of their robes are decorated with various floral patterns. The entire body of the four Bodhisattvas in the lower part of the painting are visible, their feet treading on blue lotus flowers. Extensive use of deep green, cobalt blue, and light purple have been used to paint them, making them bright and splendid, there is also 양갈색 and deep red. The halos have been painted in either green, cobalt blue or outline.

The Bodhisattvas all face towards the center of the painting.

Rocana
Rocana is positioned at the center of the canvas adorned with an elaborate crown and a jeweled necklace. Like Vairocana, Rocana is surrounded by the Buddhas of the four directions. The arrangement of the attendants is also similar. On the left side are the Bodhisattvas Mahêśvara, Maitreya, Manjusri and Vajragarbha, while to the right are Bhaiṣajyarāja, Dīpankara, Samantabhadra and Sarvanivarana-Vishkambhin. The Heavenly Kings Virūḍhaka and Dhṛtarāṣṭra are positioned in the lower left and right corners, respectively. In the upper right corner of the canvas are four of the eight vajras Cheongjejae, Hwangsugu, Jeonhseonghwa, and Jahyeonsin. The figures in the opposite corner are likely a Kinnara, Mahogara and Yama. The spread arms position of Rocana is typical of this motif, but the elaborate drapery and jeweled necklace cause it to stand out among its contemporaries. The symmetry of the two heavenly kings is also a notable difference. The canvas measures 4.37 m by 2.97 m.

Sakyamuni
Surrounded by a large nimbus, Sakyamuni is seen with his hands in the bhumisparsha mudrā. To his left and right at the ten principal disciples. On the left side are Mahākāśyapa, Śāriputra, Pūrṇa, Mahākātyāyana, and Upāli. Beneath them are the Bodhisattvas Bhaiṣajya-samudgata, Maitreya and Vajragarbha accompanied by the Heavenly King Vaiśravaṇa. On the Buddha's right side are the disciples Ānanda, Subhūti, Maudgalyāyana, Aniruddha, and Rāhula. Below them are the Boddhisatvas Śakra, Dīpankara, Sarvanivarana-Vishkambhin and the Heavenly King Virūpākṣa. In the upper left corner of the canvas are an Asura, a Garuda, Sagara, the Dragon King, and the daughter of the dragon king of the ocean. In the opposite corner are the vajras Byeokdokgeum, Baekjeongsu, Jeongjejae and Daesilleok. The canvas measures 4.38 m by 2.98 m.

Assembly of guardian deities
The assembly of guardian deities painting (sinjungtaenghwa) was executed in 1965 by the Buddhist artist Kim Ilseop (1901–1975). The figures displayed are arranged into several rows. At the center of the bottom row is the Dragon King Sagara, to whose left are Saraswati, Virūḍhaka, and Dhṛtarāṣṭra, while Lakshmi, Vaiśravaṇa, and Virūpākṣa are to the right. Prominently placed at the center of the next row is the Bodhisatva Skanda, to whose left are Tojisin, Garamsin, Munhosin, and Jujosin, and to whose right are Doryangsin, Oktaeksin, and Jujeongsin (主庭神). In the center of the next row is Vasuki, to whose left are the Purple Tenuity Emperor, Yama, Jusansin, Jujeongsin (主井神), and Cheongcheuksin while to the right are Daeaesin, Jususin, and the 개덕진군. On the left side of the next row are Gyeonnoejisin, Garuda, and Bangwisin, while to the right side are Juhwasin, Sijiksin, and an Asura. At the center of the top row is Mahêśvara. To his left are Sikhin, two apsaras and Candra, while Śakra, two more apsraras and Sūrya are to his right. The canvas measures 2.36 m by 1.61 m.

Bell
The hall's bronze bell was cast in 1722 at the temple of Yumasa. The neck of the bell is tall and round while the mouth is a bit narrow. The crown is shaped like a dragon, the head facing outward and the tail winding around the sound-pipe. Along the upper belt are inscribed 13 circles each surrounding the sanskrit character aum. Instead of a lower belt there is a horizontal line protruding outwards. The center alternates between four standing Boddhisatvas, crowned with nimbuses and hands clasped together, and four rectangles each with nine blooming lotus buds protruding outwards. There is an inscription on the lower section of the bell where it lists Kim Hyogeon and Bak Baekryong as the artisans who crafted the bell.