User:Weddy01/sandbox

•	I propose to make a grammatical change in the sentence that says “Most of the brain's billions of neurons also are developed by the second semester”. Instead of semester it should be trimester.

“Most of the brain's billions of neurons also are developed by the second trimester”.

•	I propose to make a grammatical change in the sentence that says “Several environment agents—teratogens—can cause damage during the prenatal period. These include prescription and nonprescription drugs, illegal drugs, tobacco, alcohol, environmental pollutants, infectious disease agents such as the rubella virus and the toxoplasmosis bacterium, maternal malnutrition, maternal emotional stress and Rh factor blood incompatibility between mother and child.”. I would insert a comma towards the end of the last sentence to conclude the list of things that can cause damage during the prenatal period.

“Several environment agents—teratogens—can cause damage during the prenatal period. These include prescription and nonprescription drugs, illegal drugs, tobacco, alcohol, environmental pollutants, infectious disease agents such as the rubella virus and the toxoplasmosis bacterium, maternal malnutrition, maternal emotional stress, and Rh factor blood incompatibility between mother and child.” Infancy •	I propose to further elaborate on what infant perception really is where it says “Infant Perception: Infants respond to stimuli differently in these different states.[16] “. I would also like to put that infant perception is what a newborn can see, hear, smell, taste, and feel. These five features are better known as ones “five senses”.

Infant Perception: Infant perception is what a newborn can see, hear, smell, taste, and touch. These five features are better known as ones “five senses”. Infants respond to stimuli differently in these different states.[16] The Developing Child, 8th Ed., by Helen Bee. 1997, Longman Books. •	I propose to revise the bullets under infant perception due to unclarity of some of the information and lack of organization/flow. I would also like to combine the pain with the touch bullet. 	Vision is significantly worse in infants than in older children. Infant sight tends to be blurry in early stages but improves over time. Color perception similar to that seen in adults has been demonstrated in infants as young as four months, using habituation methods.[15] Infants get to adult-like vision in about six months.[1]:191 	Hearing is well-developed prior to birth unlike vision. Newborns prefer complex sounds to pure tones, human speech to other sounds, mother's voice to other voices, and the native language to other languages. Scientist believe these features are probably learned in the womb.[1]:151 Infants are fairly good at detecting the direction from which a sound comes, and by 18 months their hearing ability is approximately equal to that of adults. 	Smell and taste are present, with infants showing different expressions of disgust or pleasure when presented with pleasant odors (honey, milk, etc.) or unpleasant odors (rotten egg) and tastes (e.g. sour taste). Newborns are born with odor and taste preferences acquired in the womb from the smell and taste of amniotic fluid, in turn influenced by what the mother eats. Both breast- and bottle-fed babies around 3 days old prefer the smell of human milk to that of formula, indicating an innate preference.[1]:150 There is good evidence for older infants preferring the smell of their mother to that of others.[15] 	Touch/Feel is one of the better-developed senses at birth considering it’s one of the first senses to develop inside the womb. This is evidenced by the primitive reflexes described above, and the relatively advanced development of the somatosensory cortex.[17] Infants feel pain similarly, if not more strongly than older children but pain-relief in infants has not received so much attention as an area of research.[18]
 * REFERENCE*


 * REFERENCES*Bogartz, R. S., Cashon, C. H., Cohen, L. B., Schilling, T. H., & Shinskey, J. L. (2000). Reply to Baillargeon, Aslin, & Munakata. Infancy, 1, 479-490.
 * REFERENCES*Bornstein, M. H., & Sigman, M. D. (1986). Continuity in mental development from infancy. Child Development, 57, 251-274.

•	I propose to include the small section of language and the next main topic of critical periods of development in the introduction of infancy. From birth until the first year, the child is referred to as an infant.[1] Developmental psychologists vary widely in their assessment of infant psychology, and the influence the outside world has upon it, but certain aspects are relatively clear. There are critical periods in infancy and childhood during which development of certain perceptual, sensorimotor, social and language systems depends crucially on environmental stimulation.[23] Feral children such as Genie, deprived of adequate stimulation, fail to acquire important skills which they are then unable to learn in later childhood. The concept of critical periods is also well-established in neurophysiology, from the work of Hubel and Wiesel among others.Babies are born with the ability to discriminate virtually all sounds of all human languages.[1]:189 Infants of around six months can differentiate between phonemes in their own language, but not between similar phonemes in another language. At this stage infants also start to babble, producing phonemes. The majority of a newborn infant's time is spent in sleep. At first this sleep is evenly spread throughout the day and night, but after a couple of months, infants generally become diurnal.

•	I propose to combine Infant Cognition: The Piagetian Era and Recent Finding in Infant Cognition in order to make the information on Infant Cognition flow better

Infant Cognition: The Piagetian Era An early theory of infant development was the Sensorimotor stage of Piaget's Theory of cognitive development. Piaget suggested that an infant's perception and understanding of the world depended on their motor development, which was required for the infant to link visual, tactile and motor representations of objects. According to this view, it is through touching and handling objects that infants develop object permanence, the understanding that objects are solid, permanent, and continue to exist when out of sight.[16] Special methods are used in the psychological study of infants. Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage comprised six sub-stages (see sensorimotor stages for more detail). In the early stages, development arises out of movements caused by primitive reflexes.[19] Discovery of new behaviors results from classical and operant conditioning, and the formation of habits.[19] From eight months the infant is able to uncover a hidden object but will persevere when the object is moved. Piaget came to his conclusion that infants lacked a complete understanding of object permanence before 18 months after observing infants' failure before this age to look for an object where it was last seen. Instead infants continue to look for an object where it was first seen, committing the "A-not-B error." Some researchers have suggested that before the age of eight to nine months, infants' inability to understand object permanence extends to people, which explains why infants at this age do not cry when their mothers are gone ("Out of sight, out of mind"). In the 1980s and 1990s, researchers have developed many new methods of assessing infants' understanding of the world with far more precision and subtlety than Piaget was able to do in his time. Since then, many studies based on these methods suggest that young infants understand far more about the world than first thought. Based on recent findings, some researchers (such as Elizabeth Spelke and Renee Baillargeon) have proposed that an understanding of object permanence is not learned at all, but rather comprises part of the innate cognitive capacities of our species.

Other research has suggested that young infants in their first six months of life may possess an understanding of numerous aspects of the world around them, including: - an early numerical cognition, that is, an ability to represent number and even compute the outcomes of addition and subtraction operations;[20] - an ability to infer the goals of people in their environment;[21] - an ability to engage in simple causal reasoning.[22]

Middle age •	I propose to change the subtitle from Middle age to Middle Adulthood because it sounds more professional and it flows better. Middle Adulthood Main article: Middle age Middle adulthood generally refers to the period between ages 40 to 60. During this period, middle-aged adults experience a conflict between generativity and stagnation. They may either feel a sense of contributing to society, the next generation or their immediate community or a sense of purposelessness. Physically, the middle-aged experience a decline in muscular strength, reaction time, sensory keenness, and cardiac output. Also, women experience menopause and a sharp drop in the hormone estrogen. Men experience an equivalent endocrine system event to menopause. Andropause in males is a hormone fluctuation with physical and psychological effects that can be similar to those seen in menopausal females. As men age, lowered testosterone levels can contribute to mood swings and a decline in sperm count. Sexual responsiveness can also be affected, including delays in erection and longer periods of penile stimulation required to achieve ejaculation. Old age •	I propose to change the subtitle from Old age to Maturity because it sounds more professional and it flows better. Maturity Main article: Old age This stage generally refers to those over 60–100 years. According to Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development, old age is the stage in which individuals assess the quality of their lives. In reflecting on their lives, people in this age group develop a feeling of integrity if deciding that their lives were successful or a feeling of despair if evaluation of one's life indicates a failure to achieve goals.[26] Physically, older people experience a decline in muscular strength, reaction time, stamina, hearing, distance perception, and the sense of smell. They also are more susceptible to severe diseases such as cancer and pneumonia due to a weakened immune system. Mental disintegration may also occur, leading to dementia or ailments such as Alzheimer's disease. Factors such as physical therapy[27] and exercise[28] have been identified as potential modulators of physical decline. Because of a lifetime's accumulation of antibodies (among other factors), some of the elderly are less likely to suffer from certain ordinary diseases such as the common cold.[29] Expression [|sexuality in older age|] depends in large part upon the emotional and physical health of the individual. Many older adults continue to be sexually active and satisfied with their sexual activity. Whether or not intellectual powers increase or decrease with age remains controversial. Longitudinal studies have suggested that intellect declines, while cross-sectional studies suggest that intellect is stable. It is generally believed that crystallized intelligence increases up to old age, while fluid intelligence decreases with age.[30]