User:Willow333/Exploitation of women in mass media

Introduction
The exploitation of women in mass media is the use or portrayal of women in mass media such as television, film, music, and advertising as objects or sexual beings, in order to increase the appeal of media or a product to the detriment of the women being portrayed, and women in society. Exploitation of women in media can include setting unrealistic feminine beauty ideals, perpetuating gender stereotypes, sexual objectification, and inciting violence toward women. The exploitation of women in mass media has been a topic through feminist studies and scholars.

Film
Historically, the film industry has been exploitative toward women both on and off screen. Stereotypically in film, women are often depicted as one dimensional characters, overly emotional, and subsequent compared to their male counterparts. This can be attributed to a myriad of reasons, for instance, the male dominance within the industry and lack of female representation. When it comes to the depiction of women on screen, there is a limited perspective of what women's humanity entails. According to Ward and Harrison, “media portrayals typically construct rather narrow and stereotypical portraits of women and of femininity.” In film, there is more of an emphasis on the physical and sexual appeal of women, as objects of desire, or on the other side, appear as a respectable housewife or mother, allowing no depth or character development in between these stereotypes.

Furthermore, feminist film theorists have considered the Bechdel test, a popular test used in film to evaluate how women are represented in film. The Bechdel test, named after 1980's cartoonist Alison Bechdel. The test consists of two requirements: two women in the film have to have a conversation with one another about something other than a man, and the two female characters must be named. Even blockbuster movies that are considered to be more progressive fail this test, including The Avengers (2012), Avatar (2009), and Lord of The Rings (2001-2003). Although the Bechdel test is not an indication of whether or not women are properly represented in films, but brings attention to the gender inequality that exists in film and entertainment.

Social media
Social media has a prominent influence on how adolescent girls and women have on their self-image. In Cohen’s study, #BoPo on Instagram, found that young women have more favorable attitudes toward posts and accounts that promote body positive content, as opposed to thin-ideal accounts, which cause a negative association. Furthermore, social media trends such as “fitspiration” contribute to negative body image for females. In a study by Simpson and Mazzeo, they found that users are more likely to comment according to body-image standards, rather than health standards, and had a comparable amount of praise for fitness appearance as a thin appearance. Social media comparison can go beyond physical appearance. In Sheldon and Wiegand’s study, they found that on Instagram, young females and women also compare themselves on the basis of success, intelligence, and happiness.

Pornography
Pornography has contributed to the exploitation of women in media as well as their relationships. Zillmann and Bryant found that after consuming pornography, college students reported less satisfaction with their intimate partners, in regard to affection, physical appearance, sexual curiosity, and sexual performance.

In Effects of Prolonged Consumption of Pornography, a review of pornography research conducted for the Surgeon General in 1986, Zillmann noted that some inconsistencies in the literature on pornography exist, but overall concluded that extensive viewing of pornographic material may produce some negative sociological effects, including a decreased respect for long-term, monogamous relationships, and an attenuated desire for procreation. He describes the theoretical basis for these conclusions stating:"The values expressed in pornography clash so obviously with the family concept, and they potentially undermine the traditional values that favor marriage, family, and children... Pornographic scripts dwell on sexual engagements of parties who have just met, who are in no way attached or committed to each other, and who will part shortly, never to meet again... Sexual gratification in pornography is not a function of emotional attachment, of kindness, of caring, and especially not of continuance of the relationship, as such continuance would translate into responsibilities, curtailments, and costs."

Effects on youth
Youth are among one of the most affected groups regarding the exploitation of women in media. Exposure to the negative ways in which women are portrayed in the media has an effect on how young males view women in society and how young females view themselves. According to social cognitive theory, modeling behaviors outlined within popular media have long-lasting effects upon the self-awareness and self-identity of young girls. Likewise, young boys who watch women being exploited in media are more likely to imitate and learn from that behavior. Statistically, a significant number of young children are exposed to sexualized media texts from early childhood. Influence upon girls' self-image has been reported for girls as young as 5 or 6.

Violence
The violence toward women that appears in media directly correlates with what women experience in the real world, increasing the likeliness and acceptance of experiencing domestic violence, sexual violence, and physical abuse. The exploitation of women in mass media is reinforced through the portrayals of stereotypical gender roles, which show women as sexually and physically submissive and men as sexually dominant. The ongoing objectification of women, furthered by men, encourages the "socialization of objectified body consciousness among women". Media plays a role in how violence against women is perceived. Media such as film, TV, and video games popularize and desensitize users' perceptions of the treatment of women. According to a study by Easteal, media portrayals of women consistently perpetuate patriarchal views and present a problematic picture of violence toward women.

Effects on women of color
In media, women of color and diverse backgrounds are often misrepresented, underrepresented, and perpetuated by harmful stereotypes. When it comes to women in the media, there is already a lack of positive representation, but when there are female portrayal, they are predominantly represented as white, young, glamorous, heterosexual, and less influential than men. Therefore, when it comes to women of a minority background, their portrayal relies heavily on stereotypes that are often perpetuated by people who are not a part of these diverse communities. For instance, Portrayals of African American women are limited, even in films and print media that target Black audiences.

Gender performative theory
Gender performative theory was introduced by Judith Butler in their book, Gender Trouble: feminism in the subversion of identity. Butler's theory suggests that behavior is not indicative by whether someone were born male or female, but behave in a way to fit into society. The way someone dresses, behaves, and acts is a performance and does not indicate gender identity. In their research essay, "Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay on Phenomenology and Feminist Theory," Butler divides gender performance in three sections: Sex/Gender: Feminist and Phenomenological Views, Binary Genders and Heterosexual Contract, and Feminist Theory: Beyond an Expressive Model of Gender. In Section I, Butler makes note of the difference between the phenomenological and feminist features of the body, arguing that physical sex is not what defines a gender, but rather the embodiment of gender. Section II discusses the commodification of women in society and how certain gender roles are widely accepted as normal, resulting in social stigma and gender oppression for women. Finally, Section III focuses on how gender is not exclusively a feminist political topic, but rather exists as an active effort or performance, which help shape and change cultural and societal views of gender.

Sexual script theory
Sexual script theory, popularized by Gagnon and Simon in their book, Sexual Conduct (1973). Sexual scripts are a sociological theory that guide sexual behaviors. According to Gagnon and Simon, there are three types of scripting: cultural scenarios, interpersonal scripts, and intrapsychic scripts. Cultural scenarios refer to the instruction in collective meanings agreed on by a culture or society, while interpersonal scripts are scenarios presented by an individual in a specific social context, and intrapsychic scripts are what an individual desires.

Social cognitive theory
Social cognitive theory, an extension of Bandura's social learning theory, is a psychological theory that suggests that people are influenced by their own social experiences and environment. In terms of gender, social cognitive theory is related, as the conception of gender is constructed from experiences and interactions that are learned as a result of social influences.

Cultivation theory
Cultivation theory states that over time, exposure to mass media such as television, movies, or video games influences an audience's perceptions of reality. Most notably, George Gerbner founded the theory of cultivation, specifically looking into the influence that television has on audiences, especially regarding violence. Cultivation theory plays a role in which how women on screen are perceived, especially regarding violence.

Male gaze theory
Male gaze theory, popularized by Laura Mulvey, is a concept many feminist film critics have pointed to in classical Hollywood film-making. Laura Mulvey's theory on the Male Gaze describes how viewers respond to visual content. The term "male gaze" describes a sexualized form of seeing that allows men to objectify women. Women are presented to heterosexual men in a sexualized fashion as objects of desire. For the male viewer, the sexualization of women occurs in visual media that responds to male voyeurism. According to Mulvey, the theory refers to the "to-be-looked-at-ness" of film. The male is the "carrier of the look," and the female is the "spectacle." Budd Boetticher summarizes the view of male gaze: "What counts is what the heroine provokes, or rather what she represents. She is the one, or rather the love or fear she inspires in the hero, or else the concern he feels for her, who makes him act the way he does. In herself the woman has not the slightest importance." Laura Mulvey's essay "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema" (1975), expands on the concept of the passive role of women in cinema to argue that film provides visual pleasure through scopophilia and identification with the on-screen male actor. Mulvey states, "In their traditional exhibitionist role women are simultaneously looked at and displayed, with their appearance coded for strong visual and erotic impact so that they can be said to connote to-be-looked-at-ness," and as a result contends that in film a woman is the "bearer of meaning, not maker of meaning". Mulvey suggests that Lacan's psychoanalytic theory is the key to understanding how film creates such a space for female sexual objectification and exploitation through the combination of the patriarchal order of society, and 'looking' in itself as a pleasurable act of voyeurism, as "the cinema satisfies a primordial wish for pleasurable looking."

Commodification theory
Commodification theory is a system in which goods, services, materials, and ideas are turned into commodities. According to Karl Marx, "Commodification is a process by which exchange value comes to dominate use value." In different forms of media, the exploitation and objectification of women can be considered a form of commodification. In media such as advertising where the goal is to target women as consumers, in turn, women also see themselves as commodities. According to Winship:"Femininity is recuperated by the capitalist form: the exchange between commodity and 'woman' in the ad establishes her as a commodity too... it is the modes of femininity themselves which are archived through commodities and are replaced by commodities."Sayings like "sex sells" contribute to the idea that women are considered a commodity, and are further objectified by exploiting the sexualization and fragmentation of the female body.