User:XIUWEN LING/sandbox

= Tax performance =

Tax performance of a country is the capacity to collect taxes. Tax performance is important for an country.On the aspect of raising revenue, an inadequate effort to collect in the government or deficiencies in tax structure policy may caused by a poor tax performance, which are also affected by many factors. There is a strong connection between tax performance and the topic "tax" in Wikipedia result in catching the attention. Taxation is the main content of domestic revenue. Great tax performance could expand the normal government expenditure that society need. For instance, evidence provided to foreign supporter which improve the existence of effort on the development which based on the domestic resource. Both the degree of performance of tax structure policy and the extent of difficulties to collect could affect tax performance, whatever the revenue is increasing or decreasing.

Changes over time
Generally, tax revenue increase a little with the time goes by.

i.Income per capita
In all income groups, Non-tax revenue, including property income, is higher for low tax performers, therefore alternative sources of financing partly decrease the lack of tax revenue. Whereas, non-tax revenue doesn't fully make contributions to the result of low tax revenue: all revenues and expenditures are lower in low tax performing countries than in the other two categories, even though low tax performers from the upper-middle income group obtain more revenues than average tax performers.

ii. Aid
There are some evidence appearing that low tax performers receive less foreign aid and external borrowing than others. By contrast, low income countries which have average or high tax performers have more opportunities to get more aid. These high tax performers appears more frequently on the international community. Also, they may have much heavier internal debt than external debt which is looked. Apart from that, international institutions, governments and donors may also be interested in the countries which have a consistently low or even decreasing tax performance and know how these states do tax collection.

iv. Governance
Basing the data in the Polity IV and the WGI Voice, no matter what income group is, the lower tax performing of countries is, the less democratic governments are. In addition, according to the WGI Government Effectiveness index, these governments are more probably less effective, even if the difference is smaller. The importance of legal and political institutions and the importance of indicators with the governance quality have potential importance.

iv.Environment
Generally, there is a higher death rate in armed clashes as long as too many displaces persons between low tax performers. Especially in the groups of the low income and lower-middle income group, there is a more serious phenomenon. Therefore, special circumstance could also be one of the causes resulting in low tax.

The determines of tax performance
Tax performance (tax/GDP) is determined by inherently structural factors (variable capturing the tax base, to which tax rates are applied).Musgrave stated that taxation collecting from low-revenue citizens may be restricted by lacking availability of 'tax handles', while these restriction may be less serious with the development of economics. Furthermore, urbanization always relate to the development. At the same time, the efficiency of collecting tax is promoted by it, which brings more demand of public service.


 * GDP increase income-revenue with the improvement of collection efficiency.
 * Proportion of agriculture in GDP expected to result in the lower revenue consistently. In low income countries, the larger agricultural sector, more difficulty to tax because agriculture exist as a subsistence activity. Moreover, preferential tax treatment may be granted and great social returns around city center on public service provision yields. That explain that the benefits of tax treatment of agricultural sector for society.


 * Proportion of industry associated with increase in revenue by mixed causes . It is easy to monitor and tax industrial sector, as well as a larger taxable sector and the larger ratio of manufacturing to GDP captures economic development.


 * Trade- the main participation of tax revenue in low income countries are export and imports. The deeper extent of openness associate with the higher level of revenue. That provide more information to describe the facts of advantages of international trading. Furthermore, it refer that the ease of taxing trade reflected by the interpretation of the degree of openness. In addition, according to the income and outcome of mineral and manufacturing, the impact on tax performance are mostly different, occasionally, it turns out contrary effect  in different groups.


 * Assistance - confusing effect and mixed causes. If there is a positive tax performance in a country, other country will be willing to provide assistance because that means the country may have ability to pay back the money.
 * Resources - it's hard to tax (obviously). For example, the copyright is one of the resources which is hard to tax due to a large amount of unrecoverable use. While the income of selling copyright is also an non-negligible income. The policy to tax those kind of resources need to be update and improved frequently.
 * Promoted urban management related to increasing revenue. If the government improve the taxing polity, that could result in higher efficiency of taxing and promoted tax performance.
 * For most Sub - Sahara Africa countries, resource tax revenues are important. this kind of tax revenue normally more volatile and less transparent.
 * Increasing GDP could not lead to the growth in tax base. There are affected by flexible and variable causes.
 * It is becoming more and more difficult to consistently tax the increasing bases (MNEs, resource extraction and very wealthy individuals).
 * The differences between the growing rate of private sector spending which is made up of the indirect tax base as well as formal sector earnings and employment which represent the income tax base and GDP would result in the difficulties of promoting the percentage of tax in GDP.

The measure of country's tax performance
The measure of a country's tax performance is signified by the term 'tax effort'. Then it gives several approaches to calculate the tax effort rates. These approaches provide measures of tax performance or termed 'static' indicators. These indicators would be useful of reaching a goal of informing the potential tax increase for a specific country. Nevertheless, the author mentioned that it is more important to concern the efforts made by countries in different groups to increase tax revenues. The statistic indicators just one of the causes of those kind of effort. Dynamic measures of tax performance compare changes in the tax ratio, which indicates an income tax elasticity.

According to the dynamic measurement of tax performance, the high-income OECD group participate the least share of countries accompanying with a buoyancy ratio lower than unity. The lower middle-income group follows this group. This data indicates that more effort to increase tax revenues are contributed by lower income groups than higher income groups (the upper middle-income group do not meet this appearance). The probable tax at the level of a country's taxable capacity which reflect what the extent the country make use of its taxable capacity.

Assessing tax performance
At OECD level, the states which has low income among all individuals do not meet the needs of administration and institution in tax systems. (PDF) But public expenditure will increase the difficulty of revenue mobilization. due to the higher levels of development. Therefore, it is appropriate to consider the level of development when assess the capacity to collecting taxes on its citizens. Hence, there is not much sense to make an appraisal of a state by comparing the data to accurate value or OCED levels. Meanwhile, the expectations on changes among tax revenue may be more realistic, which result from making causation between tax revenue and development levels. Each one from misreporting, data corruption and some external shocks may be the cause of the massive changes on data level with another year over. In order to know about the tax collection at exact time, the tax ratio of vast countries is associated with their signed GDP per capita and then make a trend line for it. According to both the distance and position of each country away this line, there are three categories comes out by grouping those countries, which are low tax performers, average tax performers and high tax performers. Through knowing the categories of grouped countries, the situation of the effectiveness of this country taxing their citizens.

Not only the recent tax performance is worthy of considering, the variation trend of it but also deserve attention. For  instance, if the tax ratio of a country rise tardily, it is not possible to judge the position of a country only through a single observation.

The assumption that if there is a "easy" access for  governments to get alternative financial sources, they will have less motivation to do complex tax collection. (PDF) As a result, the non-tax revenue of a government is also worthy to be consider as a factor which may influence the tax ratio. ODA grants which belongs to the non-tax revenue gets high attention because the revenue from exporting minerals (gold, copper) and non-renewable energy carriers (gas, oil) could achieve the goal of financing its essential functions rather than depriving its citizens income in a part to achieve high tax ratio. (PDF) Persian Gulf states is a best example because even though some of countries have high level of revenue per capita, its tax ratio remain a very low value.

In another aspect, if there is no political argument push the governments of countries to be independent rather than rely on the ODA inflows, the states which high independent on ODA providers may need to do domestic revenue mobilization, and vice versa.

Different country have different dimension of revenue. A low tax ratio not always be the result of some fault or defective governance. How much should the government cost and what should they do answered differently by different societies. In some OESD member countries, the Nordic countries are mainly high tax ratio, while the Japan and USA are famous for tax ratio.

Generally, societies which have low quantity of governance cannot choose and carry out a tax system from a aspect of common interest. It is hard to believe that tax ratio is the outcome of democratic decision-making, transparent and capable public administration. In some cases, some powerful groups may force the government add one more tax system according to their special interests or that they successfully interrupt the initiatives of revolution on tax reform. As a consequence, in the aspect of polity, low tax rate will be more easier than high tax rate. There is evidence which show that tax performance could be promoted by IMF-supported programs with the help of the reforms about strong political commitment.

In summary, a tax performance which is low or even diminishing cannot classified as a defective or bad cases because the states with this kind of tax performance may be easy to get other financial recourses or the society choose to restrict the action of those states. Besides, Violent conflicts and natural disasters may also be the reasons of low or diminishing tax performance. Therefore, in order to fairly judge the taxation situation and other relate situation of a country, the whole environment should be considered.

Strong political will could help to improve tax performance. There are some disappointments in country practice and in some areas of advice. But some sates dramatically enhance their tax performance in a short time. By comparing tax performance in various states, econometric analysis provide a suggestion that large amount of low-income states increase their tax ratios by the amount of 2.4% of GDP. The increase in revenue of VAT is reflected by the developments in tax performance. It is well-known that constitutional structure influence tax performance. For example, low VAT C-efficiency is one of factors effect political instability. But troubles are out of financial suggestion. The standard advice that are management of resource wealth, exemptions and decentralization are driven by consideration which out of narrowly fiscal.