User:Y-S.Ko/Wikipedia course2/Philosophy

Metaphysics

 * Introduction
 * Overview
 * The Nature of Metaphysics—Some Historical Reflections
 * Metaphysics as Category Theory
 * Notes
 * Further Reading
 * 1 The Problem of Universals I: Metaphysical Realism
 * Overview
 * Realism and Nominalism
 * The Ontology of Metaphysical Realism
 * Realism and Predication
 * Realism and Abstract Reference
 * Restrictions on Realism—Exemplification
 * Further Restrictions—Defined and Undefined Predicates
 * Are There Any Unexemplified Attributes?
 * Notes
 * Further Reading
 * 2 The Problem of Universals II: Nominalism
 * Overview
 * The Motivation for Nominalism
 * Austere Nominalism
 * Metalinguistic Nominalism
 * Trope Theory
 * Fictionalism
 * Notes
 * Further Reading


 * 3 Concrete Particulars I: Substrata, Bundles, and Substances
 * Overview
 * Substratum and Bundle Theories
 * An Objection to the Bundle Theory—Subject-Predicate Discourse
 * Another Objection to the Bundle Theory—the Identity of Indiscernibles
 * An Argument for the Substratum Theory
 * Problems for the Substratum Theory
 * Aristotelian Substances
 * Notes
 * Further Reading
 * 4 Propositions and Their Neighbors
 * Overview
 * The Traditional Theory of Propositions
 * Nominalism about Propositions
 * Facts, States of Affairs, and Events
 * Notes
 * Further Reading
 * 5 The Necessary and the Possible
 * Overview
 * Problems about Modality
 * Possible Worlds
 * Possible Worlds Nominalism
 * The Metaphysics of Possible Worlds Nominalism—David Lewis
 * Actualism and Possible Worlds—Alvin Plantinga
 * Notes
 * Further Reading
 * 6 Causation
 * Overview
 * Hume’s Account of Causation
 * The Response to Hume
 * Neo-Humean Approaches
 * Notes
 * Further Reading
 * 7 The Nature of Time
 * Overview
 * McTaggart’s Argument
 * The B-Theory
 * The A-Theory
 * The New B-Theory
 * Notes
 * Further Reading


 * 8 Concrete Particulars II: Persistence through Time
 * Overview
 * Two Theories of Persistence—Endurantism and Perdurantism
 * Persistence and the Nature of Time
 * The Ontology of Perdurantism
 * An Argument for Perdurantism—Change in Properties
 * A Second Argument for Perdurantism—Change in Parts
 * Notes
 * Further Reading
 * 9 Concrete Particulars III: Parts and Wholes
 * Overview
 * The Problem of the Many
 * Mereological Nihilism
 * Mereological Moderatism
 * Mereological Universalism
 * Constitution Metaphysics
 * Partism
 * Relative Identity
 * Simple Universalism
 * Notes
 * Further Reading
 * 10 Metaphysical Indeterminacy
 * Overview
 * What Is Metaphysical Indeterminacy?
 * Epistemic Indeterminacy
 * Examples of Metaphysical Indeterminacy?
 * Composition and Metaphysical Indeterminacy
 * Future Contingents and Metaphysical Indeterminacy
 * Quantum Physics and Metaphysical Indeterminacy
 * Linguistic and Metaphysical Indeterminacy
 * Moral Indeterminacy and Metaphysical Indeterminacy
 * Evans’s Argument Against Vague Identity
 * Notes
 * Further Reading
 * 11 The Challenge of Anti-Realism
 * Overview
 * Two Views about the Nature of Reality
 * Dummett’s Anti-Realist
 * The Inscrutability of Reference
 * Putnam’s Anti-Realism
 * Realism or Anti-Realism?
 * Notes
 * Further Reading

Philosophy of Mind

 * 1 Introduction
 * 1.1 Experience and Reality
 * 1.2 The Unavoidability of the Philosophy of Mind
 * 1.3 Science and Metaphysics
 * 1.4 Metaphysics and Cognitive Science
 * 1.5 A Look Ahead
 * Suggested Reading
 * 2 Cartesian Dualism
 * 2.1 Science and Philosophy
 * 2.2 Descartes’s Dualism
 * 2.3 Substances, Attributes, Modes
 * 2.4 The Metaphysics of Cartesian Dualism
 * 2.5 Mind–Body Interaction
 * 2.6 A Causally Closed Universe
 * Suggested Reading
 * 3 Descartes’s Legacy
 * 3.1 Dualism without Interaction: Parallelism
 * 3.2 Occasionalism
 * 3.3 Causation and Occasionalism
 * 3.4 Idealism
 * 3.5 Mind and Meaning
 * 3.6 Epiphenomenalism
 * Suggested Reading
 * 4 Behaviorism
 * 4.1 Moving Away from Dualism
 * 4.2 Historical and Philosophical Background
 * 4.3 Other Minds
 * 4.4 The Beetle in the Box
 * 4.5 Philosophical Behaviorism
 * 4.6 Dispositions
 * 4.7 Behavioral Analysis
 * 4.8 Sensation
 * 4.9 The Legacy of Philosophical Behaviorism
 * 4.10 Intrinsic Characteristics
 * 4.11 ‘Experimental Methods and Conceptual Confusion’
 * 4.12 Psychological Behaviorism
 * 4.13 The Demise of Behaviorism
 * 4.14 Behavior
 * Suggested Reading
 * 5 The Identity Theory
 * 5.1 From Correlation to Identification
 * 5.2 Parsimony
 * 5.3 Self-Conscious Thought
 * 5.4 Locating Mental Qualities
 * 5.5 Substances, Properties, States, and Events
 * 5.6 Predicates and Properties
 * 5.7 Strict Identity
 * 5.8 Leibniz’s Law
 * 5.9 The $64 Question
 * 5.10 The Phenomenological Fallacy
 * 5.11 Epistemological Loose Ends
 * 5.12 Taking Stock
 * Suggested Reading
 * 6 Functionalism
 * 6.1 The Rise of Functionalism
 * 6.2 The Functionalist Picture
 * 6.3 Abstraction as Partial Consideration
 * 6.4 Minds as Programs
 * 6.5 Functional Explanation
 * 6.6 Functionalist Metaphysics
 * 6.7 Functionalism and Materialism
 * 6.8 Functional Properties
 * 6.9 Mental Properties as Functional Properties
 * 6.10 Functionalism and Behaviorism
 * 6.11 Characterizing Functional States
 * 6.12 Functional Systems Generally
 * 6.13 Moving Beyond Analogy
 * Suggested Reading
 * 7 The Representational Theory of Mind
 * 7.1 Mental Representation
 * 7.2 Semantic Engines
 * 7.3 Minds as Semantic Engines
 * 7.4 The Turing Test
 * 7.5 The Chinese Room
 * 7.6 From Syntax to Semantics
 * 7.7 Thinking as Computing
 * 7.8 Levels of Description
 * 7.9 From Taxonomy to Ontology
 * 7.10 Layers of Reality
 * Suggested Reading
 * 8 The Intentional Stance
 * 8.1 Minds as Constructs
 * 8.2 Taking a Stance
 * 8.3 From Intentional Stance to Design Stance
 * 8.4 From Design Stance to Physical Stance
 * 8.5 The Emerging Picture
 * 8.6 Thought and Language
 * 8.7 Kinds of Mind
 * 8.8 Consciousness
 * 8.9 Searle’s Objection
 * Suggested Reading
 * 9 Eliminativism
 * 9.1 From Instrumentalism to Eliminativism
 * 9.2 Ontological Commitment
 * 9.3 Theories and Theory Reduction
 * 9.4 Stich’s Argument
 * 9.5 Prospects for Reduction or Elimination
 * 9.6 Is Eliminativism Self-Refuting?
 * Suggested Reading
 * 10 Consciousness
 * 10.1 The Status of ‘Raw Feels’
 * 10.2 The Mystery of Consciousness
 * 10.3 Qualities of Conscious Experiences
 * 10.4 Zombies
 * 10.5 Biting the Bullet
 * 10.6 Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary
 * 10.7 Emergence and Panpsychism
 * 10.8 Representationalism
 * 10.9 Consciousness as Higher-Order Representation
 * 10.10 Explaining Consciousness
 * Suggested Reading
 * 11 Non-Reductive Physicalism
 * 11.1 From Substances to Properties
 * 11.2 Substance Monism, Property Dualism
 * 11.3 Mental Causation: Background Issues
 * 11.4 Mental–Physical Supervenience
 * 11.5 Causal Relevance
 * 11.6 The Causal Relevance of Mental Properties
 * 11.7 The Challenge of Causal Relevance
 * 11.8 Jettisoning Higher-Level Properties
 * 11.9 The Upshot
 * Suggested Reading
 * 12 Metaphysics and Mind
 * 12.1 The Status of Philosophies of Mind
 * 12.2 Metaphysical Preliminaries
 * 12.3 Substances and Properties
 * 12.4 Universals
 * 12.5 Properties as Particularized Ways
 * 12.6 Powerful Qualities
 * 12.7 Manifestations of Dispositions
 * 12.8 Causality and Dispositionality
 * 12.9 Complex Objects
 * 12.10 Emergence
 * 12.11 Levels of Being
 * 12.12 Predicates and Properties
 * 12.13 Properties, Realism, and Anti-Realism
 * Suggested Reading
 * 13 The Mind’s Place in Nature
 * 13.1 Applied Metaphysics
 * 13.2 Multiple Realizability
 * 13.3 An Alternative Approach
 * 13.4 Higher-Level Properties
 * 13.5 Causality and Ceteris Paribus Laws
 * 13.6 Levels of Reality vs. Levels of Description
 * 13.7 Zombies (Again)
 * 13.8 Qualities of Conscious Experience
 * 13.9 Neutral Monism
 * 13.10 ‘Privileged Access’
 * 13.11 Imagery and Intentionality
 * 13.12 Putting Imagery to Work
 * 13.13 Twin-Earth
 * 13.14 Intentionality Delivered
 * 13.15 Functionalism Adieu
 * 13.16 Dénouement
 * 13.17 Concluding Note
 * Suggested Reading

Epistemology

 * Introduction: a sketch of the sources and nature of belief, justification, and knowledge
 * Perception, belief, and justification
 * Justification as process, as status, and as property
 * Knowledge and justification
 * Memory, introspection, and self-consciousness
 * Reason and rational reflection
 * Testimony
 * Basic sources of belief, justification, and knowledge
 * Three kinds of grounds of belief
 * Fallibility and skepticism
 * Overview

Sources of justification, knowledge, and truth

 * 1 Perception: sensing, believing, and knowing
 * The elements and basic kinds of perception
 * Seeing and believing
 * Perceptual justification and perceptual knowledge
 * Notes
 * 2 Theories of perception: sense experience,appearances, and reality
 * Some commonsense views of perception
 * The theory of appearing
 * Sense-datum theories of perception
 * Adverbial theories of perception
 * Adverbial and sense-datum theories of sensory experience
 * Phenomenalism
 * Perception and the senses
 * Notes
 * 3 Memory: the preservation and reconstruction ofthe past
 * Memory and the past
 * The causal basis of memory beliefs
 * Theories of memory
 * Remembering, recalling, and imaging
 * Remembering, imaging, and recognition
 * The epistemological centrality of memory
 * Notes
 * 4 Consciousness: the life of the mind
 * Two basic kinds of mental properties
 * Introspection and inward vision
 * Some theories of introspective consciousness
 * Consciousness and privileged access
 * Introspective consciousness as a source of justification and knowledge
 * Notes
 * 5 Reason I: understanding, insight, and intellectualpower
 * Self-evident truths of reason
 * The classical view of the truths of reason
 * The empiricist view of the truths of reason
 * Notes
 * 6 Reason II: meaning, necessity, and provability
 * The conventionalist view of the truths of reason
 * Some difficulties and strengths of the classical view
 * Reason, experience, and a priori justification
 * Notes
 * 7 Testimony: the social foundation of knowledge
 * The nature of testimony: formal and informal
 * The psychology of testimony
 * The epistemology of testimony
 * The indispensability of testimonial grounds
 * Notes

The structure and growth of justification and knowledge

 * 8 Inference and the extension of knowledge
 * The process, content, and structure of inference
 * Inference and the growth of knowledge
 * Source conditions and transmission conditions for inferential knowledge and justification
 * Memorial preservation of inferential justification and inferential knowledge
 * Notes
 * 9 The architecture of knowledge
 * Inferential chains and the structure of belief
 * The epistemic regress problem
 * The epistemic regress argument
 * Foundationalism and coherentism
 * Holistic coherentism
 * The nature of coherence
 * Coherence and second-order justification
 * Moderate foundationalism
 * Notes

The nature and scope of justification and knowledge

 * 10 The analysis of knowledge: justification, certainty, and reliability
 * Knowledge and justified true belief
 * Knowledge conceived as the right kind of justified true belief
 * Naturalistic accounts of the concept of knowledge
 * Problems for reliability theories
 * Notes
 * 11 Knowledge, justification, and truth: internalism, externalism, and intellectual virtue
 * Knowledge and justification
 * Internalism and externalism in epistemology
 * Internalist and externalist versions of virtue epistemology
 * Justification, knowledge, and truth
 * The value problem
 * Theories of truth
 * Concluding proposals
 * Notes
 * 12 Scientific, moral, and religious knowledge
 * Scientific knowledge
 * Moral knowledge
 * Religious knowledge
 * Notes
 * 13 Skepticism I: the quest for certainty
 * The possibility of pervasive error
 * Skepticism generalized
 * The egocentric predicament
 * Fallibility
 * Uncertainty
 * Notes
 * 14 Skepticism II: the defense of common sense in theface of fallibility
 * Negative versus positive defenses of common sense
 * Deducibility, evidential transmission, and induction
 * The authority of knowledge and the cogency of its grounds
 * Refutation and rebuttal
 * Prospects for a positive defense of common sense
 * The challenge of rational disagreement
 * Skepticism and common sense
 * Notes
 * 15 Conclusion

Logic

 * Chapter 1 Introduction
 * 1.1 Logic
 * 1.2 Valid arguments
 * 1.3 Sound arguments
 * 1.4 The plan of this book

Part 1 Syllogistic, Informal, and Inductive Logic

 * Chapter 2 Syllogistic Logic
 * 2.1 Easier translations
 * 2.2 The star test
 * 2.4 English arguments
 * 2.4 Harder translations
 * 2.5 Deriving conclusions
 * 2.6 Venn diagrams
 * 2.7 Idiomatic arguments
 * 2.8 The Aristotelian view
 * Chapter 3 Meaning and Definitatinos
 * 3.1 Uses of language
 * 3.2 Lexical definitions
 * 3.3 Stipulative definitions
 * 3.4 Explaining meaning
 * 3.5 Making distinctions
 * 3.6 Analytic and synthetic
 * 3.7 A priori and a posteriori
 * Chapter 4 Fallacies and Argumentation
 * 4.1 Good arguments
 * 4.2 Informal fallacies
 * 4.3 Inconsistency
 * 4.4 Constructing arguments
 * 4.5 Analyzing arguments
 * Chapter 5 Inductive Reasoning
 * 5.1 The statistical syllogism
 * 5.2 Probability calculations
 * 5.3 Philosophical questions
 * 5.4 Reasoning from a sample
 * 5.5 Analogical reasoning
 * 5.6 Analogy and other minds
 * 5.7 Mill's methods
 * 5.8 Scientific laws
 * 5.9 Best-explanation reasoning
 * 5.10 Problems with induction

Part 2 Classical Symbolic Logic

 * Chapter 6 Basic Proppositional Logic
 * 6.1 Easier translations
 * 6.2 Basic truth tables
 * 6.3 Truth evaluations
 * 6.4 Unknown evaluations
 * 6.5 Complex truth tables
 * 6.6 The truth-table test
 * 6.7 The truth-assignment test
 * 6.8 Harder translations
 * 6.9 Idiomatic arguments
 * 6.10 S-rules
 * 6.11 I-rules
 * 6.12 Mixing S- and I-rules
 * 6.13 Extended inferences
 * 6.14 Logic and computers
 * Chapter 7 Propositional Proofs
 * 7.1 Easier proofs
 * 7.2 Easier refutations
 * 7.3 Harder proofs
 * 7.4 Harder refutations
 * 7.5 Copi proofs
 * 7.6 Truth trees
 * Chapter 8 Basic Quantificational Logic
 * 8.1 Easier translations
 * 8.2 Easier proofs
 * 8.3 Easier refutations
 * 8.4 Harder translations
 * 8.5 Harder proofs
 * 8.6 Copi proofs
 * Chapter 9 Relations and Identity
 * 9.1 Identity translations
 * 9.2 Identity proofs
 * 9.3 Easier relations
 * 9.4 Harder relations
 * 9.5 Relational proofs
 * 9.6 Definite descriptions
 * 9.7 Copi proofs

Part 3 Advanced Symbolic Systems

 * Chapter 10 Basic Modal Logic
 * 10.1 Translations
 * 10.2 Proofs
 * 10.3 Refutations
 * Chapter 11 Further Modal Systems
 * 11.1 Galactic travel
 * 11.2 Quantified translations
 * 11.3 Quantified proofs
 * 11.4 A sophisticated system
 * Chapter 12 Deontic and Imperative Logic
 * 12.1 Imperative translations
 * 12.2 Imperative proofs
 * 12.3 Deontic translations
 * 12.4 Deontic proofs
 * Chapter 13 Belief Logic
 * 13.1 Belief translations
 * 13.2 Belief proofs
 * 13.3 Believing and willing
 * 13.4 Willing proofs
 * 13.5 Rationality translations
 * 13.6 Rationality proofs
 * 13.7 A sophisticated system
 * Chapter 14 A Formalized Ethical Theory
 * 14.1 Practical reason
 * 14.2 Consistency
 * 14.3 The golden rule
 * 14.4 Starting the GR proof
 * 14.5 GR logical machinery
 * 14.6 The symbolic GR proof

Part 4 Further Vistas

 * Chapter 15 Metalogic
 * 15.1 Metalogical questions
 * 15.2 Symbols
 * 15.3 Soundness
 * 15.4 Completeness
 * 15.5 An axiomatic system
 * 15.6 Gödel's theorem
 * Chapter 16 History of Logic
 * 16.1 Ancient logic
 * 16.2 Medieval logic
 * 16.3 Enlightenment logic
 * 16.4 Frege and Russell
 * 16.5 After Principia
 * Chapter 17 Deviant Logics
 * 17.1 Many-valued logic
 * 17.2 Paraconsistent logic
 * 17.3 Intuitionist logic
 * 17.4 Relevance logic
 * Chapter 18 Philosophy of Logic
 * 18.1 Abstract entities
 * 18.1 Metaphysical structures
 * 18.2 The basis for logical laws
 * 18.4 Truth and paradoxes
 * 18.5 Logic's scope

Ethics

 * Preface
 * About the Tenth Edition
 * 1. WHAT IS MORALITY?
 * 1.1 The Problem of Definition
 * 1.2 First Example: Baby Theresa
 * 1.3 Second Example: Jodie and Mary
 * 1.4 Third Example: Tracy Latimer
 * 1.5 Reason and Impartiality
 * 1.6 The Minimum Conception of Morality
 * Notes on Sources
 * 2. THE CHALLENGE OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM
 * 2.1 Different Cultures Have Different Moral Codes
 * 2.2 Cultural Relativism
 * 2.3 The Cultural Differences Argument
 * 2.4 What Follows from Cultural Relativism
 * 2.5 Why There Is Less Disagreement Than There Seems to Be
 * 2.6 Some Values Are Shared by All Cultures
 * 2.7 Judging a Cultural Practice to Be Undesirable
 * 2.8 Back to the Five Claims
 * 2.9 What We Can Learn from Cultural Relativism
 * Notes on Sources
 * 3. SUBJECTIVISM IN ETHICS
 * 3.1 The Basic Idea of Ethical Subjectivism
 * 3.2 The Linguistic Turn
 * 3.3 The Rejection of Value
 * 3.4 Ethics and Science
 * 3.5 Same-Sex Relations
 * Notes on Sources
 * 4. DOES MORALITY DEPEND ON RELIGION?
 * 4.1 The Presumed Connection between Morality and Religion
 * 4.2 The Divine Command Theory 52
 * 4.3 The Theory of Natural Law
 * 4.4 Religion and Particular Moral Issues
 * Notes on Sources
 * 5. ETHICAL EGOISM
 * 5.1 Is There a Duty to Help the Starving?
 * 5.2 Psychological Egoism
 * 5.3 Three Arguments for Ethical Egoism
 * 5.4 Two Arguments against Ethical Egoism
 * Notes on Sources
 * 6. THE SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY
 * 6.1 Hobbes’s Argument
 * 6.2 The Prisoner’s Dilemma
 * 6.3 Some Advantages of the Social Contract Theory
 * 6.4 The Problem of Civil Disobedience
 * 6.5 Difficulties for the Theory
 * Notes on Sources
 * 7. THE UTILITARIAN APPROACH
 * 7.1 The Revolution in Ethics
 * 7.2 First Example: Euthanasia
 * 7.3 Second Example: Marijuana
 * 7.4 Third Example: Nonhuman Animals
 * Notes on Sources
 * 8. THE DEBATE OVER UTILITARIANISM
 * 8.1 The Classical Version of the Theory
 * 8.2 Is Pleasure All That Matters?
 * 8.3 Are Consequences All That Matter?
 * 8.4 Should We Be Equally Concerned for Everyone?
 * 8.5 The Defense of Utilitarianism
 * 8.6 Concluding Thoughts
 * Notes on Sources
 * 9. ARE THERE ABSOLUTE MORAL RULES?
 * 9.1 Harry Truman and Elizabeth Anscombe
 * 9.2 The Categorical Imperative
 * 9.3 Kant’s Arguments on Lying
 * 9.4 Conflicts between Rules
 * 9.5 Kant’s Insight
 * Notes on Sources
 * 10. KANT AND RESPECT FOR PERSONS
 * 10.1 Kant’s Core Ideas
 * 10.2 Retribution and Utility in the Theory of Punishment
 * 10.3 Kant’s Retributivism
 * Notes on Sources
 * 11. FEMINISM AND THE ETHICS OF CARE
 * 11.1 Do Women and Men Think Differently about Ethics?
 * 11.2 Implications for Moral Judgment
 * 11.3 Implications for Ethical Theory
 * Notes on Sources
 * 12. VIRTUE ETHICS
 * 12.1 The Ethics of Virtue and the Ethics of Right Action
 * 12.2 The Virtues
 * 12.3 Two Advantages of Virtue Ethics
 * 12.4 Virtue and Conduct
 * 12.5 The Problem of Incompleteness
 * 12.6 Conclusion
 * Notes on Sources
 * 13. WHAT WOULD A SATISFACTORY MORAL THEORY BE LIKE?
 * 13.1 Morality without Hubris
 * 13.2 Treating People as They Deserve
 * 13.3 A Variety of Motives
 * 13.4 Multiple-Strategies Utilitarianism
 * 13.5 The Moral Community
 * 13.6 Justice and Fairness
 * 13.7 Conclusion
 * Notes on Sources
 * Index