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COMPLETE HISTORY OF STONEHENGE EXCAVATIONS

1611. King James VI and I investigated Stonehenge to see "The stone which the builders refused", "The stone which the builders reiected", and "the stone which the builders disallowed". King James Version: 1611

1616. Doctor William Harvey, Gilbert North, and Inigo Jones find horns of stags and oxen, coals, charcoals, batter-dashers, heads of arrows, pieces of rusted armour, rotten bones, thuribulum (censer) pottery, and a large nail. Long, William, 1876, Stonehenge and its Barrows. The Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine, Volume 16

1620. George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, dug a large hole in the ground at the center of Stonehenge looking for buried treasure. (Diary)

1633-52. Inigo Jones conducted the first 'scientific' surveys of Stonehenge. Jones, I, and Webb, J, 1655, The most notable antiquity of Great Britain vulgarly called Stone-Heng on Salisbury plain. London: J Flesher for D Pakeman and L Chapman

1640. Sir Lawrence Washington, knight, owner of Stonehenge, fished around Bear's Stone (named after Washington's hound dog). Bear's Stone profile portrait a local 17th century attraction. (G-Diary) The Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine, Volumes 15-16

1652. Reverend Lawrence Washington, heir of Stonehenge, commissions Doctor Garry Denke to dig below Bear's Stone, reveals lion, calf (ox), face as a man, flying eagle, bear (dog), leopard, and hidden relics. Bear's Stone (96) renamed Hele 'to conceal, cover, hide'. (G-Diary)

1653-6. Doctor Garry Denke auger cored below Hele Stone 'The stone which the builders rejected' on various occasions. Gold, silver, brass, iron, wood, bone, concrete discovered at 1-1/3 'yardsticks' (under flying eagle). Elizabeth Washington, heir of Stonehenge. Denke, G, 1699, G-Diary (German to English by Erodelphian Literary Society of Sigma Chi Fraternity). GDG, 1-666

1666. John Aubrey surveyed Stonehenge and made a 'Review'. Described the Avenue's prehistoric pits. (the 'Aubrey Holes' discovered by Hawley, not Aubrey). Aubrey, J, 1693 (edited by J Fowles 1982), Monumenta Britannica. Sherborne, Dorset: Dorset Publishing Co

1716. Thomas Hayward, owner of Stonehenge, dug heads of oxen and other beasts. (Diary)

1721-4. William Stukeley surveyed and excavated Stonehenge and its field monuments. Surveyed the Avenue in 1721 extending beyond Stonehenge Bottom to King Barrow Ridge. Surveyed the Cursus in 1723 and excavated. Stukeley, W, 1740, Stonehenge: a temple restor'd to the British druids. London: W Innys and R Manby

1757. Benjamin Franklin observes the Hele Stone (96) "Seven Heads": lion, calf (ox), face as a man, flying eagle, bear (dog), leopard, and sardine; "Ten Horns": Altar of Burnt Offering (4 horns), Altar of Incense (4 horns), and Torah scroll (2 horns); and all of the other 'hidden' relics buried there. (Diary)

1798. Sir Richard Hoare and William Cunnington dug at Stonehenge under the fallen Slaughter Stone 95 and under fallen Stones 56 and 57. The Ancient History of Wiltshire, Volume 1, 1812

1805-10. William Cunnington dug at Stonehenge on various occasions. Cunnington, W, 1884, Guide to the stones of Stonehenge. Devizes: Bull Printer

1839. Captain Beamish excavated within Stonehenge. (Diary)

1874-7. Professor Flinders Petrie produced a plan of Stonehenge and numbered the stones. Petrie, W M F, 1880, Stonehenge: plans, description, and theories. London: Edward Stanford

1877. Charles Darwin digs at Stonehenge to study 'Sinking of great Stones through the Action of Worms'. Darwin, Charles, 1881, The Formation of Vegetable Mould, Through the Action of Worms, with Observations on Their Habits. London: John Murray

1886. Kaiser Wilhelm Society founder 33° mason Friedrich Wilhelm Denke confirmed with his auger drilled core samples (under bear, leopard and calf) Gold, silver, brass, iron, wood, bone and concrete 4 feet (1.2 meter) beneath Stonehenge Hele Stone base. (FW-Diary)

1901. Professor William Gowland meticulously recorded and excavated around stone number 56 at Stonehenge. Gowland, W, 1902, Recent excavations at Stonehenge. Archaeologia, 58, 37-82

1919-26. Colonel William Hawley extensively excavated in advance of restoration programmes at Stonehenge for the Office of Works and later for the Society of Antiquaries. Hawley excavated ditch sections of the Avenue, conducted an investigation of the Slaughter Stone and other stones at Stonehenge, and discovered the 'Aubrey Holes' (misnamed) through excavation. Hawley, W, 1921, Stonehenge: interim report on the exploration. Antiquaries Journal, 1, 19-41 Hawley, W, 1922, Second report on the excavations at Stonehenge. Antiquaries Journal, 2, 36-52 Hawley, W, 1923, Third report on the excavations at Stonehenge. Antiquaries Journal, 3, 13-20 Hawley, W, 1924, Fourth report on the excavations at Stonehenge, 1922. Antiquaries Journal, 4, 30-39 Hawley, W, 1925, Report on the excavations at Stonehenge during the season of 1923. Antiquaries Journal, 5, 21-50 Hawley, W, 1926, Report on the excavations at Stonehenge during the season of 1924. Antiquaries Journal, 6, 1-25 Hawley, W, 1928, Report on the excavations at Stonehenge during 1925 and 1926. Antiquaries Journal, 8, 149-76 (Diary) Pitts, M, Bayliss, A, McKinley, J, Boylston, A, Budd, P, Evans, J, Chenery, C, Reynolds, A, and Semple, S, 2002, An Anglo-Saxon decapitation and burial at Stonehenge. Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine, 95, 131-46

1929. Robert Newall excavated Stone 36. Newall, R S, 1929, Stonehenge. Antiquity, 3, 75-88 Newall, R S, 1929, Stonehenge, the recent excavations. Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine, 44, 348-59

1935. Young, W E V, The Stonehenge car park excavation. (Diary)

1942. Company 'C', 63rd Signal Battalion, U.S. Army Signal Corps, WWII confirmed Tabernacle of G-D beneath Heel Stone in 1942 whilst at Shrivenham, Oxfordshire, U.K., on All Hallows' Eve of '42, before Shipping-out to Operation Torch invasion at Algiers (Eastern) in the Mediterranean Theatre of Operations, during WWII. On the 31st day October of '42 (a Saturday) it was G-D of "C" Company, the 63rd Signal Battalion, caught Witching, and Core drilling; Gold, silver, brass, iron, wood, bone, Bluestone concrete (volcanic ash and tuff) at 3 to 4 'yardsticks' from GL beneath Slick-side Heel Stone (the Northeast face), and Bluestone sandstone ("micaceous stump") at 4 'yardsticks' from GL underneath Hele Stone; the Sun of righteousness Helios Stone. (see redacted "Top Secret" Arrest Report expunged '42)

1950. Robert Newall excavated Stone 66. Newall, R S, 1952, Stonehenge stone no. 66. Antiquaries Journal, 32, 65-7

1952. Robert Newall excavated Stones 71 and 72. (Diary)

1950-64. A major campaign of excavations by Richard Atkinson, Stuart Piggott, and Marcus Stone involving the re-excavation of some of Hawley’s trenches as well as previously undisturbed areas within Stonehenge. Atkinson, R J C, Piggott, S, and Stone, J F S, 1952, The excavations of two additional holes at Stonehenge, and new evidence for the date of the monument. Antiquaries Journal, 32, 14-20 Atkinson, R J C, 1956, Stonehenge. London. Penguin Books in association with Hamish Hamilton. (second revised edition 1979: Penguin Books)

1966. Faith and Lance Vatcher excavated 3 Mesolithic Stonehenge postholes. Vatcher, F de M and Vatcher, H L, 1973, Excavation of three postholes in Stonehenge car park. Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine, 68, 57-63

1968. Faith and Lance Vatcher dug geophone and floodlight cable trenches. (Diary)

1974. Garry Denke and Ralph Ferdinand set out to confirm Sir Lawrence Washington, knight and Reverend Lawrence Washington's revelation (G-Diary). Auger cores 1.2m (4ft) below Heel Stone 96 (under face as a man). Gold, silver, brass, iron, wood, bone, deteriorated concrete confirmed. No coal in cores. Stonehenge Free Festival. Denke, G W, 1974, Stonehenge Phase I: An Open-pit Coalfield Model; The First Geologic Mining School (Indiana University of Pennsylvania). GDG, 74, 1-56

1978. John Evans re-excavated a 1954 cutting through the Stonehenge ditch and bank to take samples for snail analysis and radiocarbon dating. A well-preserved human burial lay within the ditch fill. Three fine flint arrowheads were found amongst the bones, with a fourth embedded in the sternum. Atkinson, R J C and Evans, J G, 1978, Recent excavations at Stonehenge. Antiquity, 52, 235-6 Evans, J G, 1984, Stonehenge: the environment in the late Neolithic and early Bronze Age, and a Beaker burial. Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine, 78, 7-30 (Diary) Alexander Thorn and Richard Atkinson. NE side of Station Stone 94. (Diary)

1979-80. George Smith excavated in the Stonehenge car park on behalf of the Central Excavation Unit. Smith, G, 1980, Excavations in Stonehenge car park. Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine, 74/75 (1979-80), 181 (Diary) Mike Pitts excavated along south side of A344 in advance of cable-laying and pipe-trenching. In 1979, discovered the Heel Stone 97 original pit (96 original Altar Stone pit). Survey along the Avenue course identified more pits. In 1980, excavated beside the A344 and discovered a stone floor (a complete prehistoric artifact assemblage retained from the monument). Pitts, M W, 1982, On the road to Stonehenge: Report on investigations beside the A344 in 1968, 1979, and 1980. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society, 48, 75-132

1981. The Central Excavation Unit excavated in advance of the construction of the footpath through Stonehenge. Bond, D, 1983, An excavation at Stonehenge, 1981. Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine, 77, 39-43.

1984. Garry Denke (and Hells Angels) seismic survey. Auger cores 1.2m (4ft) below Heel Stone 96 (under lion head). Gold, silver, brass, iron, wood, bone, deteriorated concrete reconfirmed. No coal in cores. Stonehenge Free Festival. Denke, G, 1984, Magnetic and Electromagnetic Surveys at Heelstone, Stonehenge, United Kingdom (Indiana University of Pennsylvania). GDG, 84, 1-42

1990-6. A series of assessments and field evaluations in advance of the Stonehenge Conservation and Management Programme. Darvill, T C, 1997, Stonehenge Conservation and Management Programme: a summary of archaeological assessments and field evaluations undertaken 1990-1996. London: English Heritage

1994. Wessex Archaeology. Limited Auger Survey. Cleal, R M J, Walker, K E, and Montague, R, 1995, Stonehenge and its landscape: twentieth-century excavations (English Heritage Archaeological Report 10). London: English Heritage.

2008. Timothy Darvill and Geoffrey Wainwright set out to date the construction of the Double Bluestone Circle at Stonehenge and to chart the history of the Bluestones, and their use. Darvill, T, and Wainwright, G, 2008, Stonehenge excavations 2008. The Antiquaries Journal, Volume 89, September 2009, 1-19 (Diary) Mike Parker Pearson, Julian Richards, and Mike Pitts further the excavation of 'Aubrey Hole' 7 discovered by William Hawley, 1920. Willis, C, Marshall, P, McKinley, J, Pitts, M, Pollard, J, Richards, C, Richards, J, Thomas, J, Waldron, T, Welham, K, and Parker Pearson, M, 2016, The dead of Stonehenge. Antiquity, Volume 90, Issue 350, April 2016, 337-356

2012-3. Stonehenge A344 road excavated and removed. (Diary)

2021. Garry Denke, Geologist drilled 1.2m (4ft) cores under Heel Stone 96 (below 4 wings of a fowl). Gold, silver, brass, iron, wood, bone, deteriorated concrete reconfirmed. Pembroke anthracite, South Wales bituminous, Bristol (Somerset, Forest of Dean) sub-bituminous, and Clinker in cores. GDG, 121, Plates I-VII.

HISTORICAL TIMELINE OF CONCRETE

9600 BC Gobekli Tepe terrazzo floors (enclosure B layer III) and rectangular buildings of layer II. Mesolithic to Neolithic type of concrete in Anatolia (western Asia), constructed of burnt lime and clay, with aggregate.

6500 BC Nabataean geopolymer type of Stone age concrete in Syria, permanent heating and cooking fire pits. Primitive form of calcining on exterior faces of limestone rocks lining the fire pits.

5600 BC The earliest concrete yet discovered in Europe was developed along the Danube River in Yugoslavia. Stone age hunters or fishermen mixed red lime, sand, gravel and water.

4400 BC Stonehenge builders mixed Ancient concrete, pulverized Bluestone volcanic ash and tuff (Pozzolan) together with crushed in situ Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) lime.

3000 BC Chinese used cementitious materials to hold bamboo together in their boats and in the Great Wall. The Chinese used concrete in Gansu Province in northwest China.

2500 BC Egyptians mixed mud with straw to bind dried bricks. Also furthered the discovery of lime and gypsum mortar as a binding agent for building the Pyramids.

800 BC Babylonians and Assyrians used a bitumen to bind stone and bricks. This allowed them to combine both large and small stone objects together.

601 BC Stonehenge Altar of Burnt Offering (containing 7 gold relics) Topfill, 0.4 metre of pulverized Bluestone (volcanic ash and tuff) aggregate and lime, 3.7 metre Southeast of Heel Stone (under Anatolia's olivine-rich Altar Stone base).

600 BC Greeks discovered a natural Pozzolan on Santorini Island that developed hydraulic properties when mixed with lime. This made it possible to produce concrete that would harden under water, as well as in the air.

400 BC Petra (Greek, "city of rock"), also known as Sila, ancient city of Arabia (now southwestern Jordan). The stronghold and treasure city of the Nabataeans, an Arab people.

300 BC Romans used slaked lime and volcanic ash (Pozzolan), found near Pozzouli, Italy by the bay of Naples. Pliny the Elder reported a mortar mixture of 1 part lime to 4 parts sand. Vitruvius reported 2 parts of Pozzolan to 1 part lime.

193 BC Porticus Aemilia made of bound stones to form concrete.

75 BC Romans use a pozzolanic, hydraulic cement to build the theater at Pompeii and the Roman baths. The cement was a ground mix of lime and a volcanic ash containing silica and alumina.

44 BC Palatine Hill (Latin: Palatium), the centermost of the 7 hills of Rome, one of the most ancient parts of the city of Rome, Italy. It is some 70 metre high.

25 BC Ancient harbor at Caesarea, Israel built by Herod the Great.

AD 24 Stonehenge Altar of Burnt Offering (containing 7 gold relics) Backfill, 1.6 metre of pulverized Bluestone (volcanic ash and tuff) aggregate and lime, 1.2 to 2.8 metre below Heel Stone base. Eastern bottom of Scroll Trench.