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Diet and Cancer
It is estimated that somewhere between 30 and 35% of cancer cases can be prevented by appropriate diet, regular physical activity, and maintenance of appropriate body weight.

While numerous dietary recommendations have been proposed to reduce the risk of cancer, very few have actually been backed by definitive research. Consumption of nutrient sparse foods such as refined sugars and flour products, however, has been linked to an increased risk of cancer. Additionally, overconsumption of red meat, underconsumption of fiber, and an imbalanced omega-3 to omega-6 fatty acid ratio further increase an individual's risk of developing cancer.

Conversely, a diet rich in vitamins including vitamin D, vitamin A, and beta-carotene have been shown to decrease cancer risk, however their effects have not been confirmed as causal. These vitamins are most often found in plants, making diets rich in fruits and vegetables more preventative than those high in animal products.

Refined flours and sugars
Processed foods tend to be high in energy (calories), but low in nutritional value. The processing of wheat flour, for example, removes 78% of its original fiber, 74% of vitamin E and B vitamins, as well as 69% of the minerals. The refining of a food, in most cases, allows it to digest and affect your body more rapidly. Specifically, refined carbohydrates affect one's blood sugar quicker than in its original form. A method to quantify this impact is via the glycemic index, an scale indicating the response of one's body to a certain carbohydrate.

Results of prospective population studies testing for a connection between a high glycemic load and cancer have varied. Some have demonstrated increased rates of cancer in the entire cohort, some only in sedentary and overweight subgroups, while others indicated no effect on any group. Case-control studies, however, have discovered an association between a high glycemic load, and increased risk of cancers such as endometrial, ovarian , and colorectal.

Although a high glycemic load has not been confirmed to increase cancer risk, diabetes has demonstrated a major correlation. In a 6 year study of 9,605 men and women living in Norfolk, England, and between ages 45 to 79 years, a strong connection was made between worsening diabetes, and increased cancer risk. Patients were given HbA1c tests (haemoglobin A1c), which indicate how well one's diabetes is being controlled based on HbA1c levels. Patients with known diabetes were at a 200% greater risk of colorectal cancer.

In comparison to refined flours, whole grain consumption has been shown to prevent numerous forms of cancer. Specifically, risk of colorectal, pancreatic, and gastric cancers drops between 10% and 40% when whole grains are regularly consumed. Overall, daily servings of whole grains can lead to an 11% reduction in cancer mortality.

Red Meat and Cooking Temperatures
The association between red meat consumption and cancer has yet to be agreed upon, however numerous connections have been noted.

In case-control studies, for example, increased red meat consumption leads to a 67% increased risk of gastric cancer, and processed meat leads to a 76% increase. In comparison, cohort studies only recorded a 14% and 23% increase for red and processed meat, respectively.

Westernized diets, which tend to include greater amounts of red meat, have been linked to a higher risk of colorectal cancer. Most studies, however, use levels of meat well in excess of those found in human diets. Additionally, some studies eliminated entirely, the protective, human, dietary compounds used to mitigate the effects of meat on the human body. Once taken into account, all studies noted a decrease in the effect of meat on the body, because of the human mechanisms.

Fiber
Unlike animal products such as eggs, dairy, and meat, plant foods naturally contain large quantities of fiber, which has a distinct link to rates of rectal cancer. Five or more daily servings of vegetables, specifically, have been shown to reduce risk of rectal cancer. Fruit and whole grain intake likewise demonstrated a similar trend, but to a lesser degree. Consumption of refined grains, however, was directly linked to an increased risk of rectal cancer.

Omega 3:6 Imbalance
Omega 3 fatty-acids such as alpha-linolenic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) have demonstrated an ability to protect against some cancers, namely breast cancer. In comparison, omega 6 fats such as linoleic acid and arachidonic acid are associated with cancer promotion. Current cancer research strongly supports the importance of breast cancer suppressor genes, BRCA1 and BRCA2, in breast tumor prevention. Additionally, studies have demonstrated that treatment with omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (EPA and DHA) can lead to an increase in BRCA1 and BRCA2 mRNA expression in MCF7 and MDA-MB 231 tumor cell lining. In comparison, however, treatment with n-6 fatty acids (arachidonic acid) lead to no significant change in expression. In general, increased omega 3 intake is linked to, on average, a 49% decrease in risk of breast cancer

Fruits and Vegetables
In a comprehensive review of approximately 200 different studies examining the relationship between fruit and vegetable consumption and cancer prevention, in which 156 presented findings in terms of relative risk, 128 of 156 found a significant protective effect of fruits and vegetables.

Collectively, the studies reviewed connections to cancers of the lungs, colon, breasts, cervix, esophagus, oral cavity, stomach, bladder, pancreas, and ovaries. Among studies that reviewed lung cancer, 24 of 25 reported preventative effects. Among studies dealing with stomach and bladder cancers, 26 of 30, and 23 of 38 studies revealed noteworthy protection, respectively.

Fruits were particularly protective of esophagal, oral, and laryngeal cancers, while allium vegetables, such as garlic, onion, and leek, proved most preventative for prostate, colorectal, and stomach cancer.

These fruits and vegetables are beneficial for numerous reasons, namely their containing chemical compounds such as selenium, chlorophyll, vitamin B-12, folic acid, vitamin D, and antioxidants (i.e. vitamin C).

Case-control studies support the preventative effects of fruit and vegetable consumption for cancer of the esophagus, lung, stomach, and colon. For some specific cancers, however, only one form of produce appears most preventative, such as breast cancer, which is prevented best by vegetables, and bladder cancer, which is mainly prevented by fruit.

Medication/Vitamins
The concept that medications can be used to prevent cancer is attractive, and evidence supports their use in a few defined circumstances. In the general population, NSAIDs reduce the risk of colorectal cancer however due to the cardiovascular and gastrointestinal side effects they cause overall harm when used for prevention. Aspirin has been found to reduce the risk of death from cancer by about 7%. COX-2 inhibitor may decrease the rate of polyp formation in people with familial adenomatous polyposis however are associated with the same adverse effects as NSAIDs. Daily use of tamoxifen or raloxifene has been demonstrated to reduce the risk of developing breast cancer in high-risk women. The benefit verses harm for 5-alpha-reductase inhibitor such as finasteride is not clear.

Most Vitamins have not been found to be effective at preventing cancer, however some have demonstrated inverse relationships with risk of certain cancers. The relationship between certain vitamins and cancer prevention appears most promising in the antioxidant vitamins; Vitamin D and Vitamin E. Whether this relationship is causal, and they are truly protective, has not determined.

Outside of the antioxidant vitamins, Folic acid supplementation has not been found to be very effective in preventing colon cancer and may increase colon polyps. Additionally, selenium consumption has demonstrated a slight inverse relationship with the risk of certain cancers, however it has not been confirmed to be a causal one.

Vitamin D
Low blood levels of vitamin D are correlated with increased cancer risk, however causality has not been confirmed. Researchers are attempting to prove causality by using vitamin D based drugs (calcitrol) along with chemotherapy. Additionally, among 63 observational studies of vitamin D status in relation to cancer risk, a majority found a protective relationship between sufficient vitamin D status and lower risk of cancer. Among the studies were 30 of colon cancer, 13 of breast, 26 of prostate, and 7 of ovarian cancer.

Vitamin E
Vitamin E is a common antioxidant, with 8 isoforms, such as (α-, β-, γ- and δ-) tocopherols and (α-, β-, γ- and δ-) tocotrienols. It is believed that both forms of vitamin E (tocopherols and tocotrienols) have anti-tumor effects due to their antioxidant effects. Several studies have indicated that the tocotrienols may have a stronger bioactivity than the tocopherols. Both have shown antiproliferative, proapoptotic and cyclooxygenase-2- inhibiting effects in in vitro and animal studies.

Cancer Prevention Diets
Although most diets that claim to be healthy, will also claim to help prevent cancer, few have been supported by scientific evidence. Among diets that are evidenced to fight cancer, a trend of high plant-food and low animal-product consumption is clear.

Mediterranean Diet
The traditional Mediterranean diet is a staple in many European nations. It is a diet based on abundant and variable plant foods, high consumption of cereal grains, olive oil as the main (added) fat, low intake of (red) meat and moderate consumption of wine. It is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer. The specific mechanisms which give the Mediterranean diet its cancer preventing properties are related to the balanced omega 6 and omega 3 fatty acid ratio and plenty of fiber, antioxidants and polyphenols (from fruit, vegetables, olive oil and wine).

Japanese Diet
Incidence of fat-related cancers (FRCs) are very low among japanese individuals consuming a traditional Japanese diet. The low risks of FRCs can be explained by the limited intake of fats, specifically n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). Instead, the Japanese diet emphasizes omega-3 fatty acids by highlighting marine foods. Additionally, the Japanese diet is abundant in vegetables and fruits, providing both dietary fiber and vitamins.

Obesity
Excess weight and obesity stand as one of the most significant causes of cancer, with 14% of all cancer deaths in men and 20% of those in women linked to the condition.

A 2004 study analyzing modifiable behavioral risk factors, which are the leading causes of death in the United States, discovered that poor diet/physical inactivity was the second leading cause of death. At 365,000 deaths per year, improper diet and physical activity nears tobacco, which causes 435,000 deaths annually. The researchers, whom included the CDC Director at the time, Dr. Julie Gerberding, explained that they did expect poor diet and physical inactivity "to overtake tobacco" in the upcoming decades.

The rising rates of obesity are directly correlated with certain cancer statistics. With the rise in obesity, 12 of 13 obesity-related cancers, including those of the thyroid, liver, pancreas, and ovaries rose 7 percent between 2005 and 2014. A 2003 cohort study concluded that the heaviest members of the experimental group (those with a body-mass index [the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters] of at least 40) had death rates from all cancers that were 62% higher for women, and 52% higher for men, compared to rates among individuals of normal weight. The researchers involved with this study concluded that clear correlations existed between obesity and higher death rates for "esophagus, colon and rectum, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, and kidney" cancers in both men and women. Separately, body-mass-index was also associated with death from stomach and prostate cancer in men, and breast, uterine, cervical, and ovarian cancer in women. The same authors estimated that more than 90,000 annual cancer deaths could be prevented if the population maintained a normal body-mass-index under 25.0.

Solutions to obesity, such as the CRON (Calorie Restriction with Optimal Nutrition) Program where one consumes 70-80% of the amount of food required to maintain their normal body weight, while still consuming the necessary amounts of nutrients, have been linked to extended life-spans, and reduced chronic disease. Among Swedish women hospitalized for anorexia nervosa (an eating disorder characterized by extreme calorie restriction) between 1965 and 1998, there was a 23% lower frequency of breast cancer among women who have never given birth, and a 76% lower frequency among those who have given birth at least once. Although extreme calorie restriction is detrimental, slight calorie restraint has proven advantageous.

Article Improvement (10/31)
Cancer Prevention:

- Introduction - The concerned - Dietary - Medication - Vaccines
 * Include more detail about the industry of cancer prevention, and the organizations that spearhead the research
 * Describe the doubt that comes with some form of prevention
 * Specify which prevention methods are most widely accepted and backed by research
 * Remove section all together
 * (Maybe) Include details about the role of age in cancer statistics
 * Intro with obesity, but include more statistical evidence
 * Go by each food group (grains, red meat, poultry, fish, etc.)
 * Describe the debate that still continues (no conclusive evidence for one side)
 * Describe any distinct differences between dietary recommendations between nations
 * Delve more into the slippery slope of medical side effects
 * Add 1-2 more examples of cancer fighting medications, and whether it is its main purpose or not
 * Finish by including new research about medications that are falsely assumed to have cancer preventative effects
 * Widen the breath of vaccines discussed
 * Focus on the fact that the cancer prevention is a side effect
 * Include whether the vaccines benefits are confirmed or speculated.

Article Copyedit (10/26)
Cancer Prevention:

- Edits - Sections to improve
 * Cancer prevention is defined as active measures to decrease the risk of cancer. The vast majority of cancer cases are due to environmental risk factors, and many, but not all, of these environmental factors are controllable (new word) lifestyle choices. Greater than 30% (more specificity) of cancer deaths could be prevented by avoiding risk factors including: tobacco, overweight / obesity, an insufficient diet, physical inactivity, alcohol, sexually transmitted infections, and air pollution. Not all environmental causes are controllable, such as naturally occurring background radiation, (develop topic more) and other cases of cancer are caused through hereditary genetic disorders and thus it is not possible to prevent all cases of cancer without the immoral (remove opinion) act of outlawing all sexual activity with anybody over the average age of female puberty.
 * While many dietary recommendations have been proposed to reduce the risk of cancer, the evidence to support them is not definitive. (reword) The primary dietary factors that increase risk are obesity and alcohol consumption; with a diet low in fruits and vegetables and high in red meat being implicated but not confirmed. (insert more statistics/evidence about certain correlations) A 2014 meta-analysis did not find a relationship between fruits and vegetables and cancer. Consumption of coffee is associated with a reduced risk of liver cancer. (more specific percentages) Studies have linked excessive consumption of red or processed meat to an increased risk of breast cancer, colon cancer, and pancreatic cancer, a phenomenon which could be due to the presence of carcinogens in meats cooked at high temperatures. Dietary recommendations for cancer prevention typically (what organization's recommendations - compare the figures from different groups and countries) include an emphasis on vegetables, fruit, whole grains, and fish, and an avoidance of processed and red meat (beef, pork, lamb), animal fats, and refined carbohydrates.
 * The concept that medications can be used to prevent cancer is attractive, (new word) and evidence supports their use in a few defined circumstances. In the general population, NSAIDs reduce the risk of colorectal cancer however due to the cardiovascular and gastrointestinal side effects they cause overall harm when used for prevention. (insert more specific studies/facts) Aspirin has been found to reduce the risk of death from cancer by about 7%. (insert citation COX-2 inhibitor may decrease the rate of polyp formation in people with familial adenomatous polyposis however are associated with the same adverse effects as NSAIDs. Daily use of tamoxifen or raloxifene has been demonstrated to reduce the risk of developing breast cancer in high-risk women. The benefit verses harm for 5-alpha-reductase inhibitor such as finasteride is not clear. Vitamins have not been found to be effective at preventing cancer, although low blood levels of vitamin D are correlated with increased cancer risk. (specify the study, and its validity) Whether this relationship is causal and vitamin D supplementation is protective is not determined. Beta-Carotene supplementation has been found to increase lung cancer rates in those who are high risk. Folic acid supplementation has not been found effective in preventing colon cancer and may increase colon polyps. It is unclear if selenium supplementation has an effect. (explain why that is)
 * Vaccines have been developed that prevent infection by some carcinogenic viruses. Human papillomavirus vaccine (Gardasil and Cervarix) decreases the risk of developing cervical cancer. (explain if they are intended to do that, or its just a side effect) The hepatitis B vaccine prevents infection with hepatitis B virus and thus decreases the risk of liver cancer. The administration of human papillomavirus and hepatitis B vaccinations is recommended when resources allow.
 * Dietary prevention
 * Delve into the connection between meat, refined grain, alcohol, and sugar consumption
 * Compare the effects of various diets (cultural and fad)
 * Tobacco correlation
 * Introduce more studies and statistics about tobacco use, and its connection to cancer (not just lung)
 * Medical
 * Research and write about pharmaceutical research, and what medical interventions are actually proven to prevent, or cause, cancer.
 * Exercise/Lifestyle
 * Add in a section about the correlation between active lifestyles, and cancer prevention

Wikipedia Article- Decision (10/24)
Options:

1. Cancer Prevention - I plan to contribute a more in depth analysis of the correlation between nutrition, lifestyle and cancer. Included in lifestyle, I would research the relationship between pharmacology and oncology. Which drugs increase and decrease your chances of developing cancer? In addition, I would analyze society's hyperfocus on cancer treatment instead of prevention. I will flesh out the dynamic between efforts put into cancer treatment options compared to those put into cancer prevention research and information distribution. Lastly, I would tie the distribution of efforts/funds into an analysis of how corporations are effecting cancer prevention efforts

2.Healthcare in Ukraine or Health in Ukraine - I will provide an indepth analysis of the relationship between Ukraine's economy, and it's healthcare system. I will develop the correlation between a weak financial state, bribery and the state of healthcare in the country. Lastly, I would explain the effect that such a healthcare system has had in the country. - In terms of general health in the nation, I would focus on the leading causes of death in the nation, its diet, and general lifestyle. I would tie in the state of healthcare, and general perspectives on health toward the end.

Decision:

1. Cancer Prevention

"ACS Guidelines on Nutrition and Physical Activity for Cancer Prevention". American Cancer Society.

Hwang1 M, Park B (30 September 2017). "Association Between Health Behaviors and Family History of Cancer in Cancer Survivors: Data From the Korean Genome and Epidemiology Study". Journal of Cancer Prevention. 22: 166-173

"Interventions That are Known to Lower Cancer Risk". National Cancer Institute.

"Interventions That are Not Known to Lower Cancer Risk". National Cancer Institute.

Danaei G, Vander Hoorn S, Lopez AD, Murray CJ, Ezzati M (2005). "Causes of cancer in the world: comparative risk assessment of nine behavioural and environmental risk factors". Lancet. 366 (9499): 1784–93.

Wicki A, Hagmann J (September 2011). "Diet and cancer". Swiss Medical Weekly. 141: w13250.

Article Evaluation (10/17)
The article titled "Sweetened beverages," portrays the product in a bias and health-oriented light. In terms of relevance, the article presents significant facts, however, still manages to stray off into immaterial topics. For example, the "Milk vs Sweetened Beverage Consumption" section appears disconnected from the rest of the piece. As the entire article hones in on the broader implications of sweetened beverage consumption, this study about children selecting sugary drinks over milk seems out of place.

The article is also written with an anti-sweetened beverage bias, and calls the product "liquid candy" in the second sentence. Viewpoints from beverage industry representatives (pro-sweetened beverages) could have neutralized the article. Next, citations are almost all correctly linked to related material. I found that only one of six links led me to a page with "no document." Additionally, the sources primarily consisted of non-bias scientific journals. A few facts, such as information about the effects of sweetened drinks on oral health, came from more bias articles written by dental societies (bias was not noted.)

This article does not move outside of the nutritional impacts of "sweetened beverages," omitting entirely, the economic and social implications. The one comment on the Talk page describes it as a "Bad article" because of its bias/focus on nutrition. The user tags the article under "Food and drink articles needing attention to coverage and accuracy." Additionally, notes are made that the article was part of the WikiProject Food and Drink, and Wiki Education Foundation. This link to nutrition education may explain the obvious bias. The article has been rated as "High-importance," and "Start-Class" in quality.

Lastly, I noticed that Wikipedia discusses the information gaps much more than we did. It seems to emphasize the importance of what was not written (bias). The website highlights content gaps, which seem to be missing chunks of information that may render an article less neutral. These gaps can be identified by searching for contrasting views in a piece, and realizing if one is missing. This relates to bias, which I define as the favoring of one side. The individual writing the article is therefore significant, because they have clear control of what lean an article takes.