User:Yondu/sandbox

History
The hippocampus (HPC) plays an important role in memory processes/functioning. It is a cortical structure in the anterior medial temporal lobe which is involved in the consolidation of short-term and long-term memories, specifically for memories of spatial navigation However there are other cortical structures involved in memories which are referred to as non-HPC memory systems. The relationship between the HPC and non-HPC systems is often studied using fear conditioning, which is a form of learning where a noxious stimulus, such as an odour or shock, creates an emotional response of fear. The amygdala is often associated with these responses in fear conditioning in which conditioned stimuli can evoke emotional memories. Indirect measures of fear conditioning, such as freezing time, have been used to infer the functional levels of spatial and learning memory

Researchers began believing other cortical structures, aside from the HPC, were involved in memory of contextual fear conditioning, because when the HPC was extensively damaged before fear conditioning, there was only a small effect on levels of behavioural memory assessments. It was deduced that other non-HPC memory systems must be involved in encoding, storing and retrieving memories during contextual fear conditioning, and that normally the HPC interferes with these processes. The mechanism of this interference is not entirely known, however studies have alluded to the location of this interference. Researchers have found that during fear conditioning the HPC competes with the non-HPC memory systems in the basolateral region of the amygdala. Injections of a dopamine D1 agonist SKF82958 into this area of the amygdala before a conditioning session were correlated with a decrease in the interference by the HPC, allowing non-HPC systems to form memories of the fear conditioning. Therefore the increased dopamine to this area, inhibits amygdala functioning which includes the HPC interfering with memory encoding in non-HPC systems.

In studies of contextual fear conditioning, there are many views describing the interaction between HPC and non-HPC systems, or the transition of memories from being hippocampus dependent to independent. The HPC and non-HPC systems may acquire the same memories but if the HPC is intact, the non-HPC systems cannot independently form or retrieve these context memories. Therefore the non-HPC systems appear to act like a back-up system for memories, that are only used when the main system, the HPC, is dysfunctional or absent. On the other hand, the HPC and non-HPC systems also have different functions. For example, the hippocampus is known to be important for context discrimination, while non-hippocampal systems have not shown evidence for this specific function.

One view for the transfer of memories from HPC-dependent to independent is that the strength of memories changes across the HPC and non-HPC systems, with damage to the HPC. In a study by Lehmann and colleagues (2009) adult male rats were put through contextual fear conditioning using feet shocks. If there was HPC damage and the rats experienced 11 sessions worth of shocks in one session, retrograde amnesia resulted. However if there was damage in the HPC and shocks were applied over many conditioning sessions, then the memory for the contextual fear conditioning was not affected. So within the numerous conditioning sessions, the memory for contextual fear conditioning may have been formed by the non-HPC memory systems. Specifically memory representations in the non-HPC systems may be strengthened and eventually become independent of the HPC, which normally overshadows/interferes with the non-HPC systems in forming representations of memories in contextual fear conditioning. Conversely another view is that memories become independent of the HPC over time due to a reorganization of stored memories. Alternatively others believe memories change characteristics to become independent of the HPC, specifically in becoming less precise, more general and context free memories in non-HPC systems, assuming that the HPC is required for precise, detailed, contextual memories.

Impact
Studying between-systems interference could potentially provide further insight to understanding and treating amnesia. Specifically retrograde amnesia, where there is an inability to recall past memories, may be seen as the hippocampus interfering with the retrieval of memories from the non-hippocampal systems. If damage or inactivation of the HPC was induced and if the non-HPC systems were strengthened, perhaps these memories could be retrieved and recalled. However before reaching this stage of application, more work needs to be done to understand the complexity of the non-HPC systems. This vein of research could potentially lead to more neuropsychological assessments to evaluate their functioning, just as there are tests for HPC functioning. Additionally, if memories can become independent of the HPC, maybe this effect is a two-way transformation pathway such that memories in contextual fear conditioning can become dependent on the HPC again.