User:Zachre Andrews/Water supply and sanitation in the United States

Access
In the U.S, in 2015, about 2.7 million people still lacked access to "improved" water. Regarding sanitation, in 2015, only around 36,000 people did not have access to "improved" sanitation.

More than 99% of the U.S. population has access to "complete plumbing facilities", defined as the following services within the housing unit:


 * hot and cold piped water,
 * bathtub or shower, and
 * flush toilet.

However, more than 1.6 million people in the United States, in 630,000 households, still lacked basic plumbing facilities as of 2014. This includes access to a toilet, short, or running water.

Of the millions who lack access to clean water, the majority are low-income individuals who are people of color, belong to tribal communities, and/or are immigrants. These groups often live in rural areas which are more susceptible to water quality violations than urban areas. Many of these violations are due to poor-quality sources of water and the lack of resources to maintain the current water infrastructure regulations. A 2017 study utilized data from the Safe Drinking Water Information System (SDWIS) and discovered that a significant amount of water quality violations were associated with higher Hispanic and Black populations. In addition, low income people of color experienced more violations than low income White, non-hispanic communities.

When analyzing statistics collected from the American Community Survey (ACS), race was established as the biggest factor in determining people’s access to clean water. In the United States, 0.3 percent of White households lack complete plumbing. When looking at this same variable under different ethnic groups, 0.5 percent of African-American and Latino households and 5.8 percent of Native-American households lack complete plumbing. The ACS highlights the disparities in access to clean water that come alongside different racial and ethnic groups.

These disparities in access to clean water are most pronounced when viewing certain minority groups that are also poor. The previous 2017 SDWIS study examined the number of violations reported when looking at different ethnic groups and their level of poverty. When looking at communities where 10% were below the poverty line, an increase from 0% to 80% of the population being Hispanic resulted in a change in the number of violations reported from 0.10 to 0.11. However, when looking at communities where 40% were below the poverty line, the same increase in the Hispanic population resulted in a change from 0.09 to 0.17. This study concluded that these ethnic disparities in access to clean water are prominent when incorporating low-income communities as well.

Historical Causes of Limited Access to Water
When trying to understand the reason why the accessibility of water is linked with low-income minority communities, it is essential to examine the past, specifically how these communities were often disregarded when it came to drafting regulations and creating new infrastructure.

As a direct result of structural racism, there has been this systemic failure to provide equal resources and services to all Americans regardless of their race or income. Individuals do not choose to have incomplete plumbing, but rather, it is a result of government policy that intentionally excluded those communities. In the 1930s, the U.S government relocated many American Indians to rural and isolated areas. These areas lacked the resources to not only create proper water infrastructure but also employ proper sanitation techniques. In addition to this mistreatment, the passing of new laws and regulations made it difficult for Native Americans to voice their concerns which only furthered their decay regarding their access to clean water.

In 1954, the city of Zanesville, Ohio discriminated against African American residents by limiting their access to waterlines. When constructing these waterlines, the city specifically ignored entire neighborhoods that were home to African-Americans. This incident highlights the discrimination that many disadvantaged communities faced that prevented their access to clean water.

Between 1950 and 2000, several water infrastructure initiatives were debuted in California, but they were exclusive in the communities that they protected. During this time period, California took measures to prevent the integration of the Hispanic/Latino community which resulted in the lack of consideration when crafting certain infrastructure. These communities were not accounted for and had to resort to decentralized water sources and poor sanitation techniques. The lack of inclusion of certain groups in California in water policy contributed to the overall deterioration of these regions.

When examining specific aspects of water policy, the majority tends to focus on protecting drinking water from over extraction by businesses for commercial purposes rather than outlining local requirements for drinking water. While the rest of the United States began to benefit from closer accessibility to water, these specific communities were ignored, evident through the creation of new laws and regulations.

Affected Regions across the United States
Today, there are still communities around the United States that do not have access to clean water. While some regions have developed alternatives to deal with this inaccessibility, others are still struggling with this issue.

Central Valley, California
In Central Valley, California, residents claim that water is their biggest issue threatening their security and survival. Although they have water that is accessible, it is extremely contaminated therefore residents are forced to travel long distances to acquire suitable drinking water. There is a high cost that comes with attaining potable water which is why many in Central Valley have had no choice other than to relocate to different regions. Regarding the demographics of Central Valley, the population is a combination of migrants that settled in the 1900s. These migrants were Black, Latino, and Asian and the majority were low-income. This initial establishment set the tone for the current state of Central Valley today. More than 50% of all drinking water violations that are reported in California come from the Central Valley. In 2006, it was discovered that 20% of the public water in Central Valley violated the state’s maximum contamination level. As a result, many are exposed to higher rates of nitrate which can damage one’s reproductive ability or even increase the likelihood of birth defects and miscarriages. In addition, coliform bacteria and other bacterial contaminants can be found in the public water and are responsible for a number of waterborne diseases. This situation is a direct result of these communities being continuously disregarded when it comes to the implementation of policy. The combination of racial discrimination and poverty can be credited to the ongoing water crisis in Central Valley.

American South
In the American South, many experience issues with wastewater, specifically due to the development of contamination sites and hazardous waste sites. Spanning all the way from Delaware to Texas, the southern “blackbelt” is  54% Black. These residents lack proper plumbing systems and access to proper sanitation. These contamination sites are often placed around communities that are composed of minorities, specifically Black and Hispanic individuals. The General Accounting Office performed a study to understand the relationship between the location of hazardous waste sites and the racial and economic status of the surrounding residents. It was discovered that race was the greatest predictor of the location of a contamination site. Close proximity to toxic landfills and long term exposure to wastewater results in a myriad of health implications. A study performed by Baylor College of Medicine examined the development of parasites in Lowndes County, Alabama — a region where 73% of its residents are Black and 31.4% of residents live below the poverty line. It was discovered that 34.5% of individuals living in this high-risk environment tested positive for hookworm, a parasite linked to wastewater. In addition, 73% of the participants in the study reported exposure to raw sewage inside of their homes. The establishment of contamination sites is directly linked to the location of certain racial groups, emphasizing how the accessibility of clean water disproportionately affects people of color.

Flint, Michigan
See also: Flint Water Crisis

In Flint, Michigan, residents consumed drinking water that contained high amounts of lead which resulted in a variety of negative health effects. The city of Flint is composed of low income African Americans who experienced a shift in their water supply due to financial limitations. Their water supply was switched from the City of Detroit’s Huron Water Supply to water from the Flint River in 2014. A group of researchers at Virginia Tech discovered that the water in the Flint River was highly corrosive due to the inflated levels of lead found in the water. The decision to switch water sources was made on the state level and completely disregarded the potential impacts it could have had on the communities living in Flint, Michigan. Residents argue that this issue was a result of Michigan’s economic history and political decision-making that often left Flint in the dark. The water crisis in Flint highlights the racial disparities that are evident when examining certain regions’ access to clean water.

Lack of Funding
Since the late twentieth century, there has been a shift in money and resources allocated towards funding new water infrastructure. Specifically, federal funding for water accessibility has dropped nearly 70% since the 1980s. In addition, federal spending has fallen from $76 per person in 1977 to just $11 per person in 2014. The responsibility of funding water and sanitation projects has moved from the federal government to local governments. While this method may be sustainable for a large majority of communities, groups that are located in impoverished areas do not have the financial resources to embark on large water projects. In the last several years, local and state governments have been forced to increase their spending to compensate for the withdrawal of federal funds.

The main reason for this redistribution of money is due to the federal government’s shift in focus onto other projects such as transportation, research, and education. In a study performed by the Department of Environmental Conservation, it was determined that in order for New York to maintain and update current water infrastructure, they would require $36.2 billion, a number much greater than the EPA’s estimate of $21.8 billion. By reallocating funds to meet water infrastructure needs, the estimated gain in annual economic activity would be above $220 billion and improve the accessibility of water for many.

With low income minority communities already being disproportionately affected by water access issues, the cut in federal spending only furthers the disparities that these groups face. These communities lack the resources to solve this issue on their own and look towards the federal government for assistance. However, their lack of involvement and general disregard for these communities leads to the continuation of their troubles.