User:ZanderSchubert/Comparitive Politics Outline

Partes de este artículo o sección se parecen de un idioma extranjero y necesita ser traducido. Si puedes ayudar, usas la página de discusión de este artículo. Si puedes entender esto, puedes ver porqué necesito estudiar el español un poquito más. Dar las gracias al Dios que no intentar escribir en el francés, que arruinaré.

These are notes based on the work in the Introduction to Comparative Politics required reading and parts of the lectures, but will not contain information from the non-required readings (yes, even for the countries I had to read up on, Brazil and India). This page coud be used as two parts of a frame page, for easy viewing between two different countries (or some bourgoisie like that...)

Making of the Modern
Not quite Europe, not quite anything else... Industrial Revolution grew UK's dominance - first industrialised state Most powerful during Queen Victoria's reign - Brit Empire was 25% of Earth's pop - hegemonic Ind Rev promoted suffrage (for men...) Interventionist during WWI and WWII (i.e. state control, not laissez-faire) Shrink of decolonisation - ¿not been powerful since Collective consensus, welfare state, then the Winter of Discontent Thatcher: 79-90: bold policies (cut taxes, reduce welfare-state, more efficiency to privates) New Labour: 97-Now: 'Third Way', devolution to SC, NI and WL

Political Economy and Development
1976: Low growth, high unemployment, IMF payout ('sick man of EU') Now: Better than most of the EU (low unempl, low infl) but sometimes f'd (housing hike) Eco-management: During consensus era: Keynesian (Kenyanese?), During Thatcher: monetarism, supported council houses, strenthened inequalities, during New Labour: alt to both: high health spending, leaner welfare state Inequality: PK/BD and Africans hugely low incomed, untreated, underrepped; women's 85.7% men's pay at best, but getting better

Governance
Powers devolved to SC, NI, WL Parliament is legislative, judicial and executive Cabinet: often debative (in principle, PM should have the majority opinion), but Blair, um... Nationalised industries (coal, iron, gas, steel) Forces: supported widely: army still major, bobbies recently centralised and criticised Judiciary: only see violations (less politicised than US), but under the EU aswell

Representation
House of Commons: 646 seats in '05: pass laws, provide finances thru tax, review policy: limited legislatively, but important democratically House of Lords: unelected (nobility), c. 1200 members: final court of appeal, amend legislation Labour: started broadining appeal postWWII, traditionally the workers' party, self-dividing in mid70s, now left of centre Conservative: economic/élite party, considered tumoilous after '97 Liberal Democrats: formed from merger of Liberal (centrist) and Social Democrat, New Labour's policies shrunk Lib Dem counters Nationalistic: Scottish National Party (SNP) and the Plaid Cymru Elections: first-past-post, creates huge majority to winners Women MPs doubled to 120 (18.2%) in '97, 118 (17.9%) in '01, 128 (19.8%) in '05 (94 in Labour), Non-Caucasian MPs 4 in '87, 6 in '92, 9 in '97 (1.4%), 12 in '01 (1.8%), 15 in '05 (2.3%) Greatest contest between Consies and Labour in the north and urban areas, mostly Consie in south and rural areas, and SNP and Labour in SC Culture: trust, deference to authority and competence, pragmatism, balance betweenacceptance of rules and disagreement over specific issues. Threats to those ideas in '70s: drop in union membership, New Social Movements (NSMs) e.g. feminism, anti-nuke activism and environmentalism. Threats now: Europeanisation, fragmentation with SC, WL and NI and Globalisation Ethnicity: 8% African, Afro-Caribbean or Asian. Anti-Muslim sentiment after 9/11 Gender: Labour says their listening, but w/o specific policies. Environmentalism grew in mid90s, GM food banned. Protests on fuel prices semi-permanently drop Blair's rating. Outcry due to BSE and fox hunting by farmers. Anti-war protests for Iraq

Transition
NI: Cease-fire in '94, Blair meets Gerry Adams of the Sinn Fein in '97 and talks in '98, yet works like $40M bank robbery and Robert McCarthy's Murder in '05 exist w/violence Reform: ¿House of Commons removal, but Blair hasn't done much yet... Immigration, refugees and assylum cause multiculturalismophobia, and hardens policy post9/11, and there are calls to end multiculturalism and 'return to core British values' Anti-EU stance vs bridge of US-EU relations: ambivelance and Euroscepticism post9/11 thought suggest the painting-self-into-cornerness of Blair with Bush

Making of the Modern
In Brief: Roamn Gaul, settling by Franks, the Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties, Hundred Years War w/UK, flourishing in 17thcent, most powerful during 17th-18thcents, l'ancien régime absolutist state by Louis XIV, but Ind Rev caused FR to lag, and to compensate, indebts itself, and tax rise leads to revolution Starting 14Jul1789, national, even international, liberal, secular and democratic, revolution: Catholicism nearly wiped and pragmatism causes continual schisms Monarchy restored, short lived 2nd Rep, Napoleonic Age, then the brief Paris Commune, followed by the 3rd Rep Poor natural resources, too much agriculture and low pop rise stagnated growth Vichy: the dark hour. Helps forge parliamentarian rule in the 4th rep, the 'house of cards': 6 months per government, al talk, no action 5th Rep: from '58: consie to '81, then socialist Le Pen: knocks of favourite Jospin to become second runoff candidate vsing Chirac Largest Muslim centre in West EU: critics US while stopping terrorism: anti-US due to too-big-for-boots-dom after Cold War nons: EU Constitution (effectively grind-halting it), due to the 'Polish plumber' Self-sheltering during 19thcent ruined it to new tech and development, wars w/DE caused cordialisation Collective ID: all French are French (um...)

Political and Economic Development
Sixth largest economy globally, due to planning, de Gaulle, dirigisme (stateled industrialisation): subsidies, loans, tax writeoffs, resturcture sectors and managing entire industries, but '68 strikes ground-halted the country for weeks Creation of specific good cause entire regions to collapse due to TW, KR and BR Socialist Mitterand helps spike social benefits, cutting-edge-tech and nationalisation, helping modernisation. Since '83, Privatisation, deregulation and liberalisation and EU-control.Most extt welfare state in the world today (free uni, high min wage, retiring at 60, social security and WHO#1 health care), but may stagnate with age (1.5 workers per retiree, 10% unemployment, low growth rate) France matters to the EU and vice versa

Governance
Pres and perliament are elected. Legislative and executive are not completely seperate, but deviation leads to strengthening of the executive Two problems: shift in parties, which it handles well, and difference between party with Pres and PM (cohabitation), many thought it would bring the regime to its knees, but worked überwell President: strong leadership (de Gaulle, Mitterrand and Chirac), controls through: naming of PM and parliament, presides government, foreign affairs, armed forces, may dissolve National Assembly, emergency Article 16 powers and Article 11 powers to conduct referenda PM: nominates cabinet, creats and shapes policies (pretty much: splits of power change) the Bureaucracy: lifetime emploment and the 'third' arm of the government Forces: Minor roles, but is used for peacekeeping, and police are reputed for illegal suveyance Multi-layered government: national, regional, departmental, municiple (36K)

Representation
Bicameral (National Assembly and Senate): lost its power to the pres, bureaucracy, EU, subnational governments... 577 district seats, elected similarly to Pres Gaullists/Union pour un Mouvement Populaire(UMP): consie. Partie Socialiste: got in power through radicle change ideas. Minor party, le Front National, first in EU to be racist, deprives legal immigrants from social benefits Elections: support for fringe soars, voting become unstable and dwindling, No restrictions on FR citizenship, yet no representation in government, and no presentation of religios items (crosses, turbans, yarmulkes, hijabs) in schools Women underrepresented in FR politics, being reconstituted by parity law (even gemnder candidates by each party) FR in inherently protesting

Transition
No strong unionism, due to lack of nationalisation Huge '95 strikes due to welfare restructure: 2M. Later, '02 trucking, '03 healthcare, '03 and '05 onb pensions, '04 for electricity...

Making of the Modern
Grand Coalition of CDU and SPD, with Angela Merkel as (the first female) Chancellor Relative homogeny, except for modern TR Gastarbeiter Still high agriculture at 54%, and no major resources, except for little coal and iron ore The first Reich was the Holy Roamn Empire, the Second formed by Bismarck Uniting more reliant on cultrue than just sheer geography (cf. FR UK): 1819 tarriff union in all DE-speaker except AT (and CH) and "revolution from above" Second Reich 1871-1918: Lower house, Reichstag, had universal suffrage; upper house, Landtag, had the actual power... Rapid industrialisation and "the scramble for Africa" to make up for lost time Weimar Republic '18-'33: war reparations and hyperinflation caused accusations that "stabbed DE in the back" Third Reich '33-'45: sworn it on 20Jan33, arson at Riechtag, blamed by comms helped pass Enabling Act banning free speach, used propoganda, centralised power, glorified Germanic warrior traditions, and forced unions w/AT, then Sudetenland in Sep'38, then Poland Sep'39, then WWII WWII: Blitzkreig, concentration camps, persecuting gays, other religions, opposing political views. Divided: FRG/BRD West and GDR/DDR East: rebuilding regional governments to prevent another war, nation-statehood returned '49, West deferring to US, East to USSR. West: stability, welfare, strong regional govs, later full employment East: full employment, bureaucratic, Berlin Wall Rapid Unification post-'90, but former East a strain: decades-behind technology, worse economy than economists expectations, high unemployment, 7.5% unimifaction tax. Economic giant, political dwarf, the economic anchor to the EU, fears that EU-ness would decrease DEness Post-WWII openness declided post-9/11, causing unrest when anti-terrorism pomelgrates, and lack of Iraq-support eeked to US People still fearful of powerful DE leading to WWIII, late unification's effect on the economy, lack of democracy until recently, collection vs. individuality.

Political Economy and Development
Pre-1871, regional eco-control. Post-1871, Prussian-led industrial growth, coordinated big business. War reparations by 1923 caused severe eco-crisis w/hyperinfl: Nazi demagoguery could solve problems Modern Länder politics more indirect, less regulatory, not as much industry under the gov: not free nor state: state's rules but lets private work unimpeded High wage, high welfare, prefered quality over lowering wages, adapting existing tech rather than newcreating in US, independant Bundesbank creating low inflation, but being surpassed by Euro Central Bank. Globalisation threatened DE business Generous welfare, trying to cope with high (6%) unemployment. Early '90s had 20% of budget to unification, even today there are gaps. Masive budget cut and privitisation (especially East: 7k of 11k), and uncoping for former comms Pre-'90s support of arts, free edu, transport systems, but unification and EUsation has undercut living standard. Racial attacks vs. TR - xenophobic, due to West unemployment and East lack of contact Only 62% of women in labour, some constriction due to unific (e.g. abortion removal), still mostly discriminated, and generation gaps contribute to baby-boom retirees' welfareness Acceptance between EU and DE

Governance
Weimar was problematic due to ability to suspend freedoms in emergencies and fragmentation-caused majoritylessness Significant Länder power and power to the lower house Bundestag vs. Bundesrat the 5% rule: parties <5% weren't represented in the Bundestag, thus excluding minorissima parties, and four-year intervals make fragmentationlessness Constructive Vote of no Confidence: Bundestag must elect new chancellor before no-confidencing current chancellor (i.e. concrete anlternatives) 16 Länder w/considerable powers, pres (cf. FR) vs. chancellor: elected by majority of Bundestag The feds only employ 10% of civil servants, and overlapping responsibility makes specifications on responsibility. Rigidity has been round since the Second Reich, bureaucracy unfriendly yet respected Semipublic companies help rebuilding without centralisation "detatched institutions", most important being healthcare and unions Forces: powerful and agressive military since 18th cent, but post WWII put military under civilian control: 1.5% of GDP on military, police decetralised, excluding the DDR Stasi Judiciary: major role but worst during Third Reich, created explicit rights, more so than US/UK, and courts often shape policy and is independant of other political BS Länder enjoy autonomy, regional govs are more on economic policy than the national gov

Representation
Bundestag's members elected by public, Bundesrat by Länder govs, the five-percent rule allows greater likelyhood of coalitions "Personalised proportional representation": two votes, one candidate one party personalises voting Bundestag: 614 seats, causing strain in Bonn during unification. New members are often backbenched, so individual electorates may not have much say Bundesrat: creates distribution of powers between nation and Länder, unlike US Senate, and is important with administration Two-and-a-half party system: The Christian Democrats/CDU (in Bavaria, CSU), Kinde, Kirche, Kuche, Socialist Party (SPD), "catchall" for workers, The Greens, the "Antiparty party", the Free Democratic Party, a swing party due to allegiances for coalition w/CDU and SPD, The Linksbundnis, from former comm party Always high voting rates, with 80-90% federally, and little swings Diversity in political opinion shown in media, and prevention of ads has caused lack of public buyouting Schools and unis changed by the '68 Generation to critisise old regimes, and racist attitudes trying to be stomped out: Until '98, citizenship was based on ethnicity, and created post-WWII one of the most liberal asylum system Gender not a huge problem, but femenism behind their US kin, and DDR women were well benefited

Transition
Model of DE as an industrialised country changing Compare on the democracy in the wake of fascism (w/JP IT ES)

Making of the Modern
JP's LDP (Lib Dem) verge of collapse, but replaced by 80%-popular Koizumi due to his future reforms 80% urbanisation, poor natural materials except water/rice, traditional traders w/KR CN Tokugawa Shogunate 1603-1867: strict class, feudal, ruled by fiefdoms kept poor by Shogun Meiji Restoration 1868-1925: ¿forced by US demnd to open ports, samarai overthrowal and kept figurehead emperor, and expanding into Western ideas. Zaibatsu, industrial and financial conglomerates dominate rurally Imperial Diet bicameral legislature, Universal Manhood Suffrage Law 1894-1895 Sino-Japanese War and 1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War successes created military de facto autonomy, led to invasion of Manchuria w/o Tokyo authorisation. Coups d'état in'32 and '36 After CN invasion, JP walks out of League of Nations and alliances w/DE. Rape of Nanking. US block of supplies led to invasion of SE Asia, then Pearl Harbor, Hiroshima and Nagasaki '45-'52 Allied occupation: transformation of democracy and demilitarisation (Article 9), zaibatsu dissolution, figurehead emperor, LDP wins from '55-'93, predominant-party regime (one-party democracy). Revision of US-Japan Mutual Security Treaty uproar: dependant on US and vs. USSR and CN, OPEC price raising leads to downturn, and ditto w/IR rev, scandles w/LDP (e.g. Kauei Tanaka), caused loss of majority in House of Councillors and House of Reps. Post 9/11 sipport of US lessened when hearing about Taliban invasion, yet still gov support Abandonment of military faith, cooperation w/US, industrial policy which created industrialisation in an illsuited environment which is failing under globilisation Hybrid history: development more like West than its neighbours, from most aggressive to most pacifist, 'rice paddy culture', unity pre-some West, interesting comparison JP-DE

Political Economy and Development
"Rich nation with strong army", but abandoned strong army. Economical miracle late'50s-early'70s, but steady growth since Meiji of >5% until Depression devestation, yet reco0vered quickly. '35-'40 growth of machinery by 170% Growth by policy and War booms and postWWII wiping of poverty and structural problems, and military spending (1/3 budget in '30 and 3/4 by WWII) creating productiveness and wealth competition, boost during Cold War US tried to curve JP growth in imports, causing drop in growth, with burst bubble at end of Cold War Huge gov role in eco since Meiji, but businesses often sold to zaibatsu, post WWII recovery administrative guidance, producing strong manufacturers, so gov pulled back, excluding rice, which was good until poor crop in '93 led to 2M import (now 8% imported); gov guidance with banking, but bankruptcy in late '90s fueled recession, Japan Post savings bank monopoly, w/Koizumi attempting privitisation (Telstra?) fiercely opposed Interdependat private sector: 98% of '02 companies were small (<100) businesses, and the big businesses (keiretsu) comprised of a bank, manufacturer, shipping, construction, shipping and insurance companies, such as Nissan, Toyota or Mitsubishi, but foreign investors are gaining ownership Dual structure (using cheap parttime workers) keep production costs down: half of all workers are women, with '90-'00 change in women high school grads going further 10% to 37.4-48.5%, due to greater appliance ownership, but only 65.5 gender parity pay. Close relationship between management and unions, greater share of income Equal pay to US or EU, but bonuses are made differently, with large benefits yet little monthly pay. Lifetime employment (until 55), little social security Nearly 90% of JP exports in '00 were industrial goods (cars and machinery), many deficits with MidEast BR AU NZ but surplusses in US UK CN. Most qualms UK-JP, especially pwnage, but recently taken crits and lowered tarrifs, and now has competition w/CN ('world factory') Leading member of IMF, UN (2nd highest contributer), ADB (largest contributer), APEC and ASEAN

Governance
47 prefectures, 2540 miunicipalities, each subordinate and narrow level of power. Constituitional monarchy like UK, Diet elects prime minister and cabinet Japan has the oldest surviving monarchy: until the Meiji Restoration, the emperor was also a demigod, after 1947 became a symbol of Japan and Japanese unity: Akihito is quite modern, but they live more sheltered than EU monarchs Cabinet: headed by Diet-elected PM. Take responisibility for emperor's actions, designating cheif of Supreme Court and other normal duties Civil servants retire at 55. Nation gov employs 800k, or 1.3%, of JP workers Forces: Zero military, but Self-Defence Forces created in '54 and has been legimated since, but still relies of US for defence, until mid'54, local municipalities owned police, but prefectures now control them, and since the '80s they have been disciplined and efficient Lopsided power of prefectures: 2/3 tax goes federally and limited decisionmaking abilities

Representation
Bicameral: House of Councillors w/242 seats, 6yr terms: 96 chosen nation wide and 146 by each prefecture, House of Representatives w/480 seats only 43 LHM (8.9%) and UHM 15/121 were women, tied 96th in most women in gov Parties: the LDP (Liberal Democratic), CGP (Clean Government), JCP (JP Comm), Social Democrativc Party and Democratic Party of Japan. Culturally homogenous and is still important politically, yet religion is not so important One of the best schooled people in the world, but the Minister of Education has power over textbooks and glosses over controversial issues, and JP students can't think creatively or critically. JP has the largest printmedia circulation in the world, but is far conservative to US Little foreigners: only 1.5% of JP or 1.8M, 1/3 from KR, 1/5 from CN, and 15% JP from BR Lack of natural resources has caused JP's large nuclear power programs, but opposition has occurred to powerplant building and many protests occur on other enviro problems (Minamata disease) Problems with Ainu: similar to AU Aboriginal (kicked out, lack of rights, alcoholism), JP citizenship dependant on jus sanguinis, so foreign born JP are JP, but KR are having problems due to 'lack of naturalisation'

Transition
Recent eco trouble and the aging population are concerns (JP has longest life expectancy in the world) US-JP military treaties seeming to break Article 9 have been noted Controversy with JP's neighbour: Yasukuni shrine commemorative war heroes, and school textbooks glossing over important facts

The United States
Note: One of the drawbacks of putting something on Wikipedia is that when the computer crashes you don't have a saved copy or an automated save by Office or whatever. Anyway, I've esentially written the first section twice now. Just so you know. Although, best of both worlds, I should type it up in, say, Wordpad, save it periodically, and update this page when I'm finished. Anyway, it's no time to create pseudo-literature: onto the topic at hand.

Making of the Modern
Bush gained 3.5M majority, as well as majoritys in both houses: 51-55/100 Senators and 229-231/435. Bush's goals: partially privatise Social Security, tax cuts, a Gastarbeiter-like program, ban of gay marriage and support to the War on Terror Constitution was designed to limit power of pres even w/majorities of both houses, and pres is a lame duck due to unreelectionness Little border problems compared w/UK FR DE, except possibly Puerto Rico Revolution: Discontent personified by Declaration of Independence and Articles of Confederation: lack of direct election of pres due to Electoral Colleges, and even then only full white male suffrage after 1840s, and women after 1920. Bill of Rights Civil WarOutrage by South at anti-slavery legislation, resulted in war and stronger federal citizenship and rights of people born in the country as citizens the New Deal era: set up to counter Depression, to control business, Social Security and subsities for ag sector Since '68: Power divided between two parties and lack of government support w/ growth of support groups (pros, antis, movements, funda'mental'ists) Post 9/11: imediate increase in federal power and Bush popularity to 90%, and introduction to the USAPATRIOT Act, as well as invasions, international support, but later, lower than 50% support for Bush, nations pulling out from Iraq and lack of popularity in FR DE Continual outcry at gov speniding and intrusion, and until WWII wanted isolationism. The gov in managing only parts of the economy. Problem of identity due to immigration

Political and Economic Development
Most of growth due to private sector - free market/laissez-faire. Gov control unconsitutional by Supreme Court, and all except ag, higher edu and some defence, all are privatised, and others have help due to grants: this meant less people can do to stop problems in the economy The US uses its power to help failing nations and protect foreign imports, despite buying more than its sold since 90's, and the US$ as a world currency has helped stabilise its eco, which may be failed due to euro Antitrust legislation, to break up bad business, was created in1890's, yet sparingly used, and taxing business doesn't help w/guarranties as much as other democracies. Tiny public sector. Variety of lands. It does protect its ports and environment More unequal distribution of money compared to other democracies (richest fifth own half), and gender/race divide, and becoming more scewed, but w/earnage-based tax rate, which somehow make lower income people pay more approx .9M immigrants p.a., or 4% increase per decade Most worker benefits are private: 1 in 6 people (45M) don't have health insurance, 21M of those full-time workers, but no public health soon due to cost. Social Security helps like welfare and so does Medicare, but there may be goverment pay later in this area ¿due to future crisis Overspending: $412G more spet in '04 than raised, with 30 states each having >$40G debts, which helps continue the ~$7.7T combined deficits since 1788 Used to be isolationist, but has expanded since WWII, with IMF, World Bank and G8

Governance
The Constitution with its 27 ammendments since 1787, each ammendment requiring 3/4 of states to agree Federalism: division of authority between federal/state govs, and Separation of Powers: separated branches so that no branch can dominate the others, creating inefficiency The President: head of state and gov. Used to not be centre (Congress was) and don't have as much power. Commander-and-chief of military, and head of bureaucracy. Since Roosevelt, often has become a pulpit. To date, all WASP except Kennedy, a Catholic. Cabinet often symbolic. Forces: Army, Navy, Marines, Coast Guard and Air Force are 1.3M w/1.3M reserves. Due to geography, little is needed to defend homeland, therefore used either in expansion or international defense. Recent downsizing has more involvement for reserves, and recent arguments for whether spending should be on troops or tech. 10% increase post9/11 ($330-380M) National Security Agencies: United recently as Homeland Security, and funding has gone up 1/3. Recent legislation scrutinised due to violations of human rights Judiciary: least defined in the Constitution, often weaker than other branches, under gain of power in late 20th cent Sub-national governments hugely important: often test policies and provide special services Often contradictory policies (tobacco subsities and anti-smoking taxes) and are often counter by other groups, and unclear bill-starting procedures leave people unsure on how to start bills

Representation
Envisioned so that Congress is the most powerful, but small states meeped, so a bicameral system was formed House of Representatives, or Congress: 435 members, fixed since 1910, terms of 2 years, each seat representing on average 646,952 constituants. 12% are women, 9% Afro, 4% Latino, .5% Asian Senate: 100 members, 2 per state, elected every 2 years for 6 year terms. 2 Latinos, 2 Asians, 14 women Post9/11, power has been more centralised Parties: Democrats and Republicans, but we already know this... Democrats originated in 1800 election, Republicans from 1856. Reps target high incomers, conservatives, rurals and get more support from men, the South and Mountain West, and most obviously whites. Democrats target urbanites, ethnic minorities and unionised labour and get support from the West Coast and Northeast and women, who are more numerous Poorer Democrat supporters are less likely to get to vote, giving a Republican dominance since '68, Congressional deomination since '94, governors in 28 states, and currently have an eleven vote majority in the Senate Internal problems occured in the Democrats in the '70s and '80s. Unlikely in the near future of a new party due to current dominance, unlikelyhood of breaking off and impossibility on getting nationwide recognision Elections: regulated by states, vary considerably (i.e. the Palm Beach County Butterfly Ballot Liberty, equality (of opportunity) and democracy are core beliefs America-wide, but religion plays an important role, more than Europe: church attendance is growing and issues like gay marriage steer votes Political life more than elections: protests, movements and civil involvement, which is dropping, but there are interest groups too numerous to mention

Transition
America needs to live up to its democratic ideals, and its export of culture makes it important to the world Lower voter turnout, immigration

Making of the Modern
Indian National Congress took Bharatiya Janata Party out of power in 2004 with support of other parties, like the CPM and Sonia Gandhi, its leader, stepped aside to allow Manmohan Singh to lead PM Currently, no party can get absolute majority, and important point w/Indian politics is its eco growth of 5-6%pa, similar to China Oldest democracy in 'developing countries' Majority Hindu, but also has considerable Muslims, Sikhs, Jains, Buddhists, Christians... divided a lot by castes and 70% are rural Mughal rule since 1526, but declined in 18th cent. Colonial times from 1757-1947, but informal until 1847, ruled by Maharajas, zamindars and direct rule depending on area Nationalism: forming of Indian National Congress in 1885, important turning point w/WWI, thanks to Mahatma Gandhi with principles of unity within diversity, but divisions were common, especially between Hindus and Muslims, causing India-Pakistan split and 10Ms of migrants Nehru: '47-'64, tried to strenghen India, left w/ bad eco and over-centralisation, and Congress becoming a political party. Splits between language groups give current borders. Nehru wanted internationalism and non-alignment, strengthening democracy. Indira Gandhi: '66-'77, '80-'84, Nehru's Daughter, estimated that she would get good support (yes!) and be weak and manipulatable (wrong!): Indian politics more personalised, populist and nationalist. She centralises power, but doesn't return support to the poor. Popularity and oppposition soared, and she declared the National Emergency: suspension of democratic rights to remove opposition, ending in elections which she lost, to the Janata party. Indira Gandhi then helped the private sector to improve eco performance, and became non-secular (Hindu). Assassinated by Sikh bodyguard due to her new religious agenda in '84, sparked riots and murders. Instability and coalition governments since Indira, post9-11 relation w/US better Governing eco, democracy and collective identity

Political Economy and Development
Eco under UK rule: largely ag, resource squandering/corruption, little industry due to UK imports Post-independance: high tariffs, safeguarding interests by restricting private industry, promissed to redistribute land, but little capacity to do so. Green Revolution solved nations hunger: state-led economic development, and industrialisation, almost becoming as good as Brazil Eco liberalisation, more wanting to export due to its own poor unable to purchase, and steady growth of 5-6%pa, requiring to repay IMF loans Reducing labour rights by pressure from industry and privatisation ag dependant on monsoon/seasons: '02 drought caused starvation and migration, and poor couldn't afford the food subsities (60Gg of food unavailable) Poor has dropped by% not by#: 70M urban poor: unorganised, heterogenous, diverse. Success in land redistribution in West Bengal and Kerala. No Western welfare-like system, except employment schemes. Large rich group at the top, but lower-middle classes make up half, and are quite poor by global standards, and there's a quarter-to-a-third of poor below them... doesn't have One Child Policy like China, although well-off region of Kerala has lower growth (and higher female education rate). More men than women, largest child labour force in the world due to absense on global education/poverty. Reservations for castes, and caste is a (relatively) major issue Liberalisation, corruption and lack of foreign access prevented liberalisation, although comp software soars, as unicity of high-tech-secs. Important locally, and looked to for growth

Governance
Specific constitution: promote eco equality and justice allows freedom of religion and suspension of rights during crises. Centralised, limited state power. Lower House: Lok Sabha, Upper House: Rajya Sabha Figurehead president, power to the PM and cabinet, but individual PM haven't lasted long except Nehru and Gandhi, and often chosen weridly, and along the Nehru-Gandhi family line Bureaucracy sprawling helps govern India: IAS - Indian Administrative Service No military involvement in politics, although needed to help with seccetionism movements. Police regularly acted on in politics, especially at the state level, and are less professional, can be bribed, and take ideas of popular groups rather than mediating Judiciary often qualms against gov due to unconstitutional acts (e.g. land redistribution) General respect of civil liberties, but are often interventionist, especially post9/11 and anti-Muslim Sub-national govs: governer like nat pres, and regionalised. Panchayats are used widely

Representation
Most voting in the Sabhas (Sabhai? Sabhan?) done on party lines, and some support for women in parliament, but only 8.3% at most recent, and little poor in parliament Parties: Congress, ruled almost completely until '90s, originally designed to help poor, left-of-center, it has gradually rightened and lost support of poor and Muslims; Janata Party, centrist, "Gandhian", associating with "backwards classes"; the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), left leaning, Hindu-nationaist, right-leaning, anti-Muslim; the Communist Party of India (CPM), based in West Bengal and Kerala (hmmmm...), isn't as communist as its namesake, but close to DE's SDP. Image matters due to lack of literacy The nation is inherantly fragmented, even in the elite, and especially regionally (religion, caste, language, region), contibuting to help democratic image, but conflicts w/ intracastal and Hindu-Muslim groups Making the gov pay attention to the underprivelaged, especcially pressure from NGOs, trade unions and social movements, often also to save environment (e.g. Sardar Sarrodaya Dam), lowercaste parties active in Maharashta and Tamil Nadu, but not major nationally

Transition
Kashmir: 65% Muslim, 35% Hindu, some want to separate from India (either independant or Pakistanisation). Directly ruled from New Dehli due to local gov problems - undemocratically ruled Nuclear power (testing in MAy '98) Ethnic diversity controls the democracy level In between economically

Making of the Modern
The sale of Companhia Vale do Rio Doce, a public mining firm, symbolised the privatisation of Brazil and faceless corporation ownership, and was opposed strongly Two thirds of South America and bordering all other SA countries except Chile, phyisically and culturally diverse Portuguese rule: even in 1808 used as clourt for king João VI exiled, and left his son Dom Pedro in power, creating the Brazilian Empire (1822-1889), centralised and using oligarchy, but functioned quite well as a representative democracy Old Republic grew from a peaceful demise of the empire, and was consolidated by coffee. Manipulated by local business elites called colonels who got their workers to vote for who they wanted (coronelismo). Often called café con leite due to control by major coffee and cattle areas São Paulo, Minas Gerais and Rio Grande do Sul 1930 revolution stirred by the depresssion which dropped coffee prices and therefore Brazil's economy, and created state corporatism under the Estado Novo under Getúlio Vargas, almost fascistic Populist Republic '45-'64: Vargas fell due to US pressure, but was reelected, and was followed by incompetant presidents Military came into power '64 under moniker bureaucratic authoritarianism: originally allowed democratic institutions, but abolitished political parties in '65 except for ARENA ("National Renewal Alliance Party") and the oposition MDB (Brazilian Democratic Movement). Created the Brazilian Economic Miracle A majority by the MDB and liberalisation weakened the AB (abertura, or opening), and demand of direct elections grew (Diretas Já!). New constitution drafted in '87 Crisis in Argentina affects Brazil, but 9/11 didn't change policy, more led by social agenda

Political Economy and Development
Export-led growth on sugar, cotton, and coffee which became the engine of the BR eco, but the gov became interventionist during the Depression as export prices fall, creating Import Sustitution Industrialisation, to create light industry then after WWII deepened, becoming the epitome of ISI, with high growth rates, even up to 12% during the '70s Failure of ISI during the '60s prompted new thoughts caming through with dependencistas from the dependist school, who suggested isolation. Growth has often caused problems with the environment, such as toxic waterways (Guanabara Bay, Paraiba do Sul River, Tietê River) and Amazonian destruction, which has since been reduced by legislation. Tax collection weak, so can't punish polluters: informal economy (outside government control) estimated to be half of BR eco, and decentralisation of power left municipal governments with overspending, holding more than half of the countries debt Inflation: hyperinflation and seven stabilisation plans between '85 and '94 failed, but the Real Plan kinda stabilised it In 1950, 35% urban, in 1980, 68%, in 1991, 75%. Unemployment raised. Inequality, especially by gender and race, visible in wealth distribution: top 20% own 64.4%, bottom 40% own 5.7% A 11%GDP conmtribution to edu and welfare not helping, workers benefits only apply to 15% of pop, and informal sector receives nothing of it, more people need it than contribute to it: 1960-200 increased retirees 11fold, and take 1.7%GDP, but being restricted since '03 rise in retirement age 1% of landowners for ag own most of the land, prompting forming of the Movimento dos Sem-Terra, and favelas grow outside cities. Support isn't given to the very poor because the rich in poor regions squander it Mercosul

Governance
Separation of church and state, presidential system w/o US checks and balences and decentralisation. Presidentialism taken to prevent power to the people, the only check there being quatrennially elections. Other power grabbings include MPs (provisional measures) and other emergency programmes very bureaucratic. In '81, 10/21 top companies were owned by the federal gov, 8 others by state govs, and a lot of spending is done on key projects (eg Itaipú, trans-Amazonian highway). Crises in '80s strained entire bureaucracy. BNDES played a key role in funding projects, yet is also for privatisation Military has been limited since military gov, but still major, and police violate human rights by shooting to kill and hired by thugs to kill urchins... Judiciary is influenced by landowners and corrupt police

Representation
81 member Senate and 513 member Chamber of Deputies: representation is weak, slightly based on size, except limits places on minima and maxima mean São Paulo vs Roraima is 70 to 8, when population would have 114 to 1, meaning a Roraimian is 33x more represented than a Sao Paulan (?). Little seats are given to non-whites (3% of seats held by Afro-BRs) or women (7%) Parties: one of the most mercurial in the world. Politicians swap parties endlessly ('87-'91 time period noticed members' ave of swapping is three parties) Most important are PFL (Party of the Liberal Front, right), PMDB (Party of the Brazilian Democratic Movement, centrist, formerly MDB), PSDB (Party of Brazilian Social Democracy, centrist, broke from MDB), PT (Workers Party, left) Urbanisation meant more literacy, meant more voters. Modern media has 2hr/day programming during elections, more for winning parties Differing yet homogenous, so lack of problems with cultures clashing, and race not an issue, but gender is Differing views on the law and what happens. Catholicism promoted democracy and printed the book Nunca Mais condemning the authoritarian past, and the conservatives outcried at the CNBB's (National Council; of Brazilian Bishops') role in politics and helping health/edu in favelas Public opinion ofter swayed by media, privately owned and can be critical. The Globo Women's movements also common, increasing women workers to 39%, higher than other Latinamerican countries, but racial discrimination and indigenous rights not majorly addressed

Russia
If you want a clearer map than the one in the book, I'm sorry to say that one doesn't exist. A kinda-version of a map of the Republics, Krais, Okrugs, Oblasts, Goddamns and Thingamidoowops of Russia exists, and presumably they can be found somehow...

Making of the Modern
Beslan: first day of school '04, 52hr siege by Chechan terrorists wanting complete removal of RU forces and freedom to Chechan rebels, resulted in an explosion in the school on September 3 leaving 300/1000 hostages dead, mostly children. Following on from attacks since '99: Chechen President Akhmad Makdyrov died from bomb in May '04, Moscow theatre hostage crisis in October '02, Black Widows. Putin's response was centralisation and counter-terrorism legislation. USSR split in December '91 into 15 new countries, but leaving Russia the largest nation in size and population in Europe. A rapid period of industrialisationand urbanisation occured during the Soviet times (18% to 73% urban population), while only 8% of the land is arable: 45% is forest, but there is vast mineral wealth w/oil, natural gas, gold and diamonds. Always been invaded due to its unprotected borders, and this with its ¿harsh climate produced centralisation and authoritarianism. Ethnic diversity and geography make the country hard to govern, and faced regional warfares for independence w/Ukraine, Belarus, Poland and the Baltic States. Tsars before 1917 had a patrimonial state with serfdom which had been emancipated but still were in a peasantry position in the mir, and a failure of existance of bourgeoisie. 1905 saw many uprisings. 1917: February Revolution threw out Tsar Nicholas II in March, and Lenin overthrew the new government in the Bolshevik Revolution or October Revolution in November. The Bolsheviks were Marxist, with their slogan "Land, Peace and Bread", but centralisation won out over democratisation, and created the vanguard party ¿which new the people's wants better than the people themselves. The USSR was (were?) created in '22 after a civil war, and soon after New Economic Plans, state control and international isolation, and unifying the idea of Sovietism and socialism. Lenin's death in '24 caused conflict, but Stalin eventually became leader after exiling Leon Trotsky and Nikolai Bukharin, silencing all opposition. He consolidated power, virtually changing all of Soviet life. 90% of farmland became state or collective farms by '35. Collectivisation led to widespread famine. Rapid industrialisation favoured heavy industy industry like steel mills, hydroelectric dams and machine building, but consumer goods were neglected. Censorship controlled the arts and all truth, and the party began following Stalin blindly. Estimated 5% of the USSR was arrested at some point, creating a legacy of fear. It survived the Great Depression but failed to keep up with foreign tech and eco transformations. Nazi Invasion on USSR in '41 forced Stalin to ally with the Allies. Propoganda called WWII the Great Patriotic War. Minority groups thought to collaborate with the enemy were proscecuted. Post-war let the USSR control most of eastern Europes economy, replicating Soviet economy in each of them and tried isolating them. Stalin dies in '53 realised terror could not continue due to expense. From here until the mid-'80s was stability and regularisation. Nikita Krushchev led from '55 until his deposition in '64 and de-Stalinised the USSR slightly. Leonid Brezhnev led the party from October '64 until his '82 death and reversed the de-Stalinisation, was bureaucratic and conservative. Tacit social contract. More freedom, but given only to compliers. Eco growth shrunk and standard of living didn't grow much. New wealth was squandered and costs of resource usage soared. Modern tech couldn't shield the USSR from the outside world any more. Mikhail Gorbachev (rhymes with 'of') took control in March '85 and reformed to grow growth using four concepts: Perestroika, or restructuring, which decentralised, Glasnost, or openness, which relaxed opinion squelching, Demokratizastiia, or 'democratisation', and "New Thinking". Eventually, Section 6 of the Soviet Constitution, which states that only one party should rule, was rescinded, and non-Russians (49.2%) became more, well, non-Russian, wanting autonomy. East European Communism fell, and then the USSR. A coup d'état in '91 was trying to stop collapse of the USSR, but helped it, Boris Yelstin took power, and the Union collapsed. Yelstin quickly started democratising the new Russian Federation, but the process was dificult. Yelstin falling ill in '99 led to March 200 elections which Vladimir Putin won. He expressed solidarity w/US post9/11, joined NATO and G8

Political and Economic Development
Renewed eco growth since USSR fall. During USSR time, all eco assets were state owned, and no need to increase profit meant no need to increase production. Shortages and surpluses. Environment quality lessened due to Soviet-symbolistic nature-transforming projects like dams and Chernobyl. Resourece run out in European Russia meant priority to Siberia, but development was expensive. No direct links to the outside world economically meant protection from depressions but also from booms and advances. Despite this, there was rapid industrialisation, low inequality and good welfare. Yelstin started market reform (shock therapy), which threw some parts downward. Had to accept short-term eco sacrifices for longterm benefits. Pillars were lifting pricing controls, encouraging private business, privitisation and international opening. Results: high inflation (2500%) in '92, wage falls by 50%, poor infrastructure hindered new investers, 80% of companies by '94 became joint-stock companies, depression by late '90s greater than Great Dep, with production half that of in '90. Business oligarchs, corruption and mafias increased power/size/scope. Crisis in August '98 led to pyramid debt by paying off debts with loans w/higher interest and 90% drop in Russian stock value. Businesspeople wanted more Russian solutions. The Ministry of Economic Development and Trade created in early '00s. Putin tried reducing business oligarchs' powers, creating some controversies (Mikhail Khodorkovsky of Yukos charged for fraud). Under Soviet systems, little society input to eco running process. Policies included spending on military, free health care, low-cost essentials, disability pensions, semi-paid maternity leave and universal education. Shortages hidered them, such as lack of good health equipment, queues were part of daily life, housing shortages and inefficient use of labour force. "We pretend to work, they pretend to pay us." Low levels of inequality (note wording: is it a high level of equality?), no private wealth could be accumulated. Post Soviet split meant cuts to welfare, higher costs to edu and health, although higher wages for skilled workers were available. High poverty rurally and homelessness skyrockets, especially in non-Russian groups, but ¿unemployment surprisingly low. Inequality in sexes. Profit less important than friends leads to less entrepreneurship. 53% of imports and 51% of exports in '84 were with eastern Europe, although Gorbachev broadened internation eco stuff, and many Western nations like DE helped. Current position in trade uncertain.

Governance
First Constitution written in '93 with usual democratic rights but edited by Yelstin to keep power. Problems had with trying to cope with the several different subnational entities inherited from the USSR. The early government wanted to "wipe the slate clean". Communist Party ruled by top-down, controlled by the Politburo. Officially constitutionial based, the last being created in '77, but it was often symbolic, and a federal system, with autonomous power to the individual republics. Semi-prespresidential system like FR but with more pres power, and the PM elected by the Duma, who focuses more on regional relations and eco issues. The PM (Putin at the time) got more power when Yelstin became ill, but after Putin's election, this changed back. Pres elected evvery four years with a maximum of two terms: Yelstin resigned New Years Eve '99 and Putin was elected March 2000, and re-elected with 71% in 2004. Pres can issues decrees which are law until the Duma decides otherwise. Bureaucracy still exists even though it claims to be downsizing itself. Because Putin was part of the KGB, security forces have been strengthened, and the police are 'corrupt' (can be bribed by people or the Mafia). Relations increased with US due to common goal of protecting their country, although didn't support with troops in Iraq. The USSR was the second largest military at the time (after US), but has been reduced in size and prestige. The Constitutional Court was formed in '91 but disbanded by Yelstin in '93. Complex subnational units. 88 exist, and there are continual efforts to join existing regions and equalise the power between regions. Regions where Russians aren't the dominant ethnic groups, many Muslim, are also wanting more autonomy, such as Chechnya, Tatarstan and Sakha Republic. Putin has created a more unified system with the creation of seven federal districts, which oversee the regional governments. Corrupt local governments have also led to governers being chosen by the pres. Russia has problems with policy implementation.

Representation and Participation
Federal Assembly created on December 12 1993 after pres elections, with a Duma membership of 450. Good representation of minorities during Soviet rule reduced: 33% women in '84 reduced to <10%, workers 35% reduced to <1%, meaning the Duma is comprised of elite males. Upper House, the Federation Council, has two members from each federal region. The CPSU ruled the USSR completely. About 10% of the population was party members. Although first elections were in '89, other parties vcouldn't be formal participants until '93, and since then a confusing array of parties have sprung up, some of which are peculiar to Western eyes (the Yabloko party). They have since placed a restriction on parties that have more than 50k members. Voters are having trouble identifying with parties and don't want to join a party due to experiences with the CPSU. Most parties voice for economic policy, and minority parties have not had a major significance even regionally. The strongest party since Soviet split has been the (wait for it) Communist Party of the Russian Federation, but since the '99 election, United Russia has gained almost equal footing. Liberal and Reform parties are having a hard time getting footing, and nationalist parties like the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia have gotten good support. Until '03, voting similar to DE, but with single member plurality, no being abolished, being more common. Russians are 80% of the population, although only 50% in the USSR. Largest current group are the Tatars, with the Bashkirs, northern indigenous groups and Muslim minorities in the south noticeable aswell. Русский vs Российский. Anti-Muslim sentiments are common. Wide media spectrum given since Soviet fall. Huge amount of special interest groups across the nation (hundreds per region in some cases), and recent political brouhaha has caused protests especially in Bashkortostan, suggesting a Color Revolution like many other former Soviet republics

Transition
Stability to becoming a marketisation and democratisation. Worries that it may have gotten 'soft authoritarianism'. Optimism has grown post-Putin presidential power period.

Eastern Europe
In this case, taken from info in |here. The countries which are included in the map are all the former communist countries not part of the USSR, but goes into detail with Poland, Hungary and the Czech Republic.

Making of the Modern
Fall of the Birlin Wall and Velvet Revolution in Czechoslovakia gave rise to protests in Prague for more freedom and an end to the Communist Party's monopoly. By December '89, Vaclav Havel is provclaimed the new CS president. By '92, the revolution is coming apart, blame is flamed, Havel resigns. By early '94, the velvet divorce. By '03, CZ eco growth is slowed, corruption explodes, entered NATO and unsure on cohesion even though it is about to enter the EU. Post Iron Curtain falling, greater inequality, only slow gains to pre-fall production. Eastern Europe considered, until '89, as comm nations in EU, and since fall, CS has split, Yugoslavia has crumbled and the USSR falling has created six new nations. Now eighteen nations exist in East-EU. EastEU unable to industrialise and was dependent of westEU and frequently occupied. e.g. Poland, formerly huge, but since 1772 split between RU Prussia and Austria, HU was owned by the Ottoman Empire, and YU gradually gained independence united linguistically not socially. Post WWI nationbuilding left many outside their nation's borders and heterogeny prevented westEU ideas of creating homogenous nationstates. Democracy failed, making comm seem a good idea. Hoped that ex-Naziness would end domination postWWII, but Stalin wanting buffer zone and imposed comm, although they had Ms supporting, and incredible brutality has excercised, even with Siberian deportion. After Stalin's death, reform was wanted somewhat, wanting to get back to true Leninism and return of leaders like Imre Nagy, who wanted to break from the Warsaw Pact after reenstates, and Wladyslaw Gomulka, who asserted authority ¿over the rioting in the streets. YU was removed from USSR contact, and its independence led to a different comm with more autonomy. The Prague Spring revolts in '68, outcries for reform, w/CS being the first comm nation to record a decline in production, and wanted speech freedom, creating a wider, open CS under Alexander Dubcek, alarming USSR and troops in Aug'68 were sent to crush the democratic socialism and creating a repression until commfall. Many attempts to change from below began, creating independent, zamizdat press and flying universities, recreating concept of politics being daily social interaction. Organisations also emerged such as the Workers' Defense Committee, orKOR, in PL, resulting in the Gdansk Accord in Aug'80 creating the Solidarity. Comm rule fell one country after another in '89. Turning point was '88 PL with the Solidarity, creating first real elections for fifty years, leading to a non-comm gov, negociating a dem change, setting of rebellions in DDR, CS. HU opened to AT on 10Sep89, creating mass exodus, the Berlin Wall fell, DE united Oct'90 and the USSR finally fell in '91. eastEU wanted to join the West and enter the EU, causing clashes w/ expectations and reality. Class has had trouble being identified, and national IDs a problem, especially vs nationalism/EUism

Political Economy and Development
Capitalism was synonymous with failure until 1945 for eastEU, w/unempl, inequality, greed and war, hence creating support for comm. The comm states eliminated private property, and workers had a future. By the '60s, shortages plagues eastEU, needing reform. HU tried the new eco mechanism in '68, but political discontent scrapped the idea. PL tried to enter the world sphere, but failed like the 3rd world. Post-commfall, PL tried shock therapy, and other states tried to remove the state from the eco, creating private firms and sectors. The gov couldn't let new firms go bankrupt because they could take whole cities with them, and many businesses weren't suited to run properly. Unemployment increased, and previous comm welfare doesn't have as much scope. Poverty grows, with well-oof PL and HU at 20% below the line. Minority problems, because for many years, everyone was the minority, national identity is fragile, and minority states were created from previous multiethnic states (CS, YU, USSR). Gender equality problems due to boosting men's chances by limiting women's, and prostitution booms. The generation gap is noticeable, but changed similar to the West. Integration into the EU and NATO and benefitted from foreign investment, and early changes were very dificult. YU areas, Romania and Bulgaria have fallen, the rest have improved

Governance
The organisation changed little except for the top. Parliamentary systems are common, but PL has a semipres system. Federalism has not been adopted to counter unitary state during comm era, and considered a problem leading to breakups (YU, CS, USSR). Many govs tried to make the change as easy as possible. Strong executive considered useful to speed up necessary decisions, such as PL which almost got ahead of itself at has had problems sorting out the power levels, meaning PM and pres are independent. former-YU preses more powerful than PL, but CZ less powerful, w/o ability to propose legislation or easily veto votes. Cabinet help to stabilise the eco and to organise privitisation. Surprisingly, many CEOs are in the cabinet. Modern bureaucracy has become meritocratic, but many comm civil servants stayed. Military not a driving force compared to first the comm party and then post-comm, and has continued to be supported by the public. Police were feared due to its secrecy and permiance. Judiciary least power of the branches of gov, partly due to EU moods, unlike strong UK/US judiciary, and partly due to the courts considered just a part of the Party during comm era. HU most active judiciary, with positions of ombudsman or ombudsperson to help civil rights. Weak subnational govs, partly due to comm era and partly due to heads still wanting control. Small communities did better under comm due to continual support from the gov vs. profit run post-comm. Due to comm party collapse, no parties in post-comm creating lack of adequate control in rural areas. Many policies were created to help EU entrance, and early policy making hectic due to problems with lobby groups

Representation
PL example: Lower House (Sejm) w/463 members and 100 member senate. Similar voting systems to rest of the west (similtaneous part-individual voting, majority bill passing, etc.). Generally low confidence rating by public throughout EEU, as low as 10% in PL, CZ, SL and HU, and there has been a massive drop in women parliamentarians. During comm era, all one party comm system, except DDR which allowed other parties provided that they weren't opposition parties. Early post-comm ('91-'94) was heavily anti-comm, but later anti-comm didn't ring in votes. HU entered post-comm era w/2 parties already, the liberal Alliance for Free Democrats (AFD), which gained 24% of vote, and the nationalist Hungarian Democratic Forum (HDF), which gained 42%. They have since marginalised, with the AFD dropping rapidly and the HDF becomming Socialist and eventually allied with eachother. PL was ruled by the party evolved from the comm party, the Demcratic Left Alliance (DLA), and in CZ there are obvious left and right parties, the left CSDP (CZ soc dem) and CDP (CZ dem). Class as an ID complicated due to theoretical absense in comm era, and national ID is strong due to previous conquering of external powers and is coming to terms with Westernisation and USation w/EU joining and new immigration. Religion is used only politically, people having faith more in capitalism than Catholicism. Little ethnic minorities due to history, creating high homogenity, and gender division not noticable. Capitalist support was first off due to it not being comm, accepting early drop in life quality

Transition
Problems reconciling market eco w/dem gov. YU earliest to reform due to lack of USSR control, with changes as early as '60s, but firts post-comm election became nationalist not lib-dem, suggesting ethnic superiority. Other problems include EU (and EU and NATO) integration, creating many policies and theoretically subordinating to the EU. Strong domestic eco w/o foreign dependency. EEU gradually becoming 'accepted' in Western eyes (in study), vis-à-vis 'the other' during comm era

Pakistan
As taken from Contempory Pakistan, Chapter IX. Therefore, order will be, um, bad, compared with the book chapters.

Creation due to problems in India, creating a state that would prevent crumbling. Ethnic and religious differences were widening and violence became more common, creating a strong military presense still used today, detrementing funds to the social sector and becoming the most formidable political actor. A search for a viale political system has created military rule, centralisation and authoritarianism. Legimacy has been based aound Islam, and democracy can only be accomplished if the current feudalist system is broken down. The nation prefered uniting over Islam than ethnic groups or pluralism. Eco growth has occured, but failed to create a large middle class. First democracy in '47-'58 struggled to create nation, funded military not social sector under Ayub Khan. General Zia '77-'88 next most impressive leader for eco gain, followed by Z. A. Bhutto, '71-'77. Socio-eco equality a problem, and no gov has created eco growth, social justice and stabile political order simaltaneously, and has spent less on edu, health and public facilities than most third world countries, most being spent on military: however, this is a sacred cow. Democratic institutions don't work, but keep creating a cycle of confrontation, with four military coups since Pakistan's independence, the most recent in '99, questioning the future of civility in the nation, and many people have suggested that it is a failed state

Indonesia
This is from State failure and state weakness in a time of terror in... something... I guess...

Not a failed state, but many observers say that it might soon disintegrate. Factors include seperationists, good socio-eco conditions for most IDs and and international support. Seperationists are only in a few provinces, but otherwise borders are uncontested. Despite the '97-'98 eco crisis and many below the poverty line, good growth, low infanticide and low inflation, and other factors plaguing other nations. Note recent East Timorese independence. When Soeharto gained power, he wanted development not democracy, and therefore the '97 ecocrisis contested his right and ability to rule. Protests eventually occured for reform to stop corruption. '99 elections, while claimed fair, didn't result in a majority or even a majority coalition, with major parties being the PDI-P 34%, previous rulers Golkar 22%, Islamic rural PKB 13%, old Islamic PPP 11% and urban Islamic party PAN 7%, and votes were diluted by military seats. Trading in the parliament lead to creation of the cabinet with Abdurrahman Wahid as president, but Assembly Members wanted to oust him in '00, allowing Magawati Sukarnoputri to become president in '01, bringing stability but little progress. Observers in '02 saw issues that shown Indonesia may crumble: eco crises, separatist movements like Aceh, West Papua and Maluku and other ethnic conflict. Continual change in preses has left little control over sustaining challenges, debt has risen especially due to foreign loans which make up half total debt, and financial secotr may have soon collapsed, leading to the gov to control bank assets. However, trade has remained steady and growth still occured, but poverty rates doubled between mid'97 and '98. Under Megawati, growth improved, but got more corrupt. East Timor: took over Portuguese East Timor in '75, quelled violent opposition, and eventually led to the May'99 vote for independence, but ID responce was violent. Aceh: fought of Dutch control but supported ID independence monetarily, and still supports the country with natural gas reserves. Since ET independence, GAM, the Free Aceh Movement, and SIRA, the Aceh Referendum Info Centre, wanted independence too, resulting in continual bloodshed. Papua: less vioent than ET or Aceh, but does have natural resources. Free Papua Organisation, or OPM, founded just after ID began self-control, eventually becoming a well-organised independence movement. "Horizontal Conflicts". Maluku: traditionally Christian area, Muslim immigrants cause conflict. Kalimantan: Chirstano-animistic indigenous Dayak and Muslim immigrants from Madura cause strife, but less violent. Sulawesi: Again, Islam-v-Christian. There is also continual pressures from autonomists in many places

South Africa
Settlement began when VOC created a "refreshment station" at the Cape of Good Hope in 1652, encountering native Khoi Khoi. Slaves from the Indies and Madagascar mixing with blacks and whites created Cape Coloureds, and Dutch settlers, or boers, pushed outward to control land, with elitist beliefs, and eventually pushing created the Kaffir Wars. Napoleon's occupation of NL prompted British control of Table Bay to keep the FR out for safe keeping for NL, but UK remade it into a UK colony. Boers moved inland creating the Orange Free State and Trasvaal. Expansion led to the Boer War, with UK wining creating the Union of South Africa in 1910, but UK didn't suppress them the Boers and, infact, the took over by 1950. Quasi-presidential system, and the ANC has nearly 2/3 of power, enough to monopolise the parliament. Formerly parliament was tricemeral, one white, one Indian, one colored, no black despite being 75% of pop ¿because they were represented in their rural homelands. First pres post-Apartheid was Nelson Mandela when he was released from prison, and current pres in Thabo Mbeki. Current National Assembly (Lower House) has 400 members based on population, the Council of Provinces has 90, 10 from each province. No automatic membership depending on group. No 'black' or 'white' parties. The African National Congress, although heavily Xhosa defines itself as multiracial, and had been inexile during apartheid until 1990 when 'black parties' became legalised. ZA is quickly becoming a one party state. During Apartheid, the homelands or Bantustans were 13% of ZA territory. Although claimed independent, they weren't recognised, and included Traskei, Ciskei, Bophuthatswana and Venda. The National Party which dominated Apartheid time shrunk post '94 and merged with the Democratic Party in '00 to make the Democratic Alliance. Voting is obten tribal specific (Xhosas vote ANC, Zulus IFP) and see themselves as their tribe first, ZA later or not at all. Afrikaners began thinking themselves not NL/FR/DE over the 19thcent, becoming Africa's white tribe, or die volk. English speakers, 40% of ZA whites, were scorned by Afrikaners, and English are more likely to voice their fears of ZA's safety. Indiand and Coloreds are squeezed in the middle. WHile the ANC is traditionally Xhosa, it's a catch-all party. It's strung between promising blacks jobs, housing and edu and being calm and reassuring to whites to help eco stability. Dialogue is now made between the ANC and whites, and there was fighting between ANC supporters and Inkatha supporters in KwaZulu-Natal, and outside often Zulu vs non-Zulu. The violence ironically picked up most post-Apartheid. Parties are aligned on a left-right and black-non-black lines, with close parties in important dialogue which, if removed, would destroy ZA democracy. Hatred from blacks to whites due to ill treatment during Apartheid era. Post-'revolution' problems due to lack of calming down, and still large problems with blacks' health and eco. Some have suggested ZA is being Brazilianised.

Making of the Modern
Olusegun Obasanjo in '99 became first elected NG leader in nearly 20 years, helping reverse problems w/ oppressive govs who stole most of the nations oil revenue. In '02, he was impeached by the National Assembly due to unconstitutional behaviour. Constant struggle between authoritarianism and dem gov. Largest pop in Africa (130M) and 10th largest in world, a centre for West African trade and culture. A British colony from 1914 until 1Oct60 independence, with borders that ignored pre-colonial cultural borders but was defined by the border of British and French Rule. The north was governed seperate from the south until they amalgamated in 1914. has 60% of West African pop and more than half of the regions GDP. Major areas: the northwest with a majority Hausa-Fulani (Muslim), who are the largest group nationally, and many minorities including the Kanuri, the Middle Belt with numerous minority groups, the southwest dominated by the second-largest group nationally, the Yoruba (40% Muslim, 50% Christian), the southeast which is the Igbo homeland, and the south along the Niger Delta. States were more centralised in Nigeria during pre-colonial era than in other African areas due to necessary irrigation, with states such as Kanem-Bornu in the northeast, Hausa in the northwest and Jukun. The Fulani led by Muslim Uthman dan Fodio in 1808 created the Sotoko Caliphate which forged a unity under Islam and Hausa until imposition by the British. The Tiv in the south were uncentralised and weren't as screwed up by colonisalism due to their acephalous society. Other nations included the Yoruba empire, Oyo kingdom, Ife kingdom amd Benin in the west. The societies were quite dem-ic with accountable leaders, and highly sctructure in the north under Qur'anic interpretation. EU powers arrived in the Scramble for Africa after 1860, and the British used indirect rule to control many of the kingdoms, occasionally strengthening power in leaders of certain groups. UK played with the intergroup relations to stop organised resistance, thus screwing up later democracy. When UK wanted out, NG leaders wanted to appeal to ethnicity (the Igbo, Hausa-Fulani and Yoruba are all minorities, but together are 2/3 of pop). The first NG party, the NCNC (National Convention of Nigerian Citizens, formally of Nigeria and the Cameroons) drew support from most of Nigeria. UK divided the country into roughly three areas, one for each group, w/NCNC gradually associated w/Igbo, the Action Group w/Yoruba and Northern People's Congress w/Hausa-Fulani. NG independence in '60, adopting Westminister model, and pure pop levels led to control by NPC, who wanted to distribute the benefits of edu that they were given, conflicting w/NCNC and AG. AG termoil was caused by splitting the Yoruba area into two, splitting AG power, prompting coup, w/Aguiyi Ironsi, new leader, wanting to stop corruption and violence, folowed by other coup, leading to Igbo persecution, wanting to becomne independent (Biafra), leading to civil war and 1M dead after 3 years. General Gowon, who became leader wanted to dilute power of the big three after the war by dissolving the regions into 12 states, later 19, and increasing army size. He was overthrown in '75 by Murtala Muhammad due to corruption, but he was assassinated in '76, with his 2nd-in-command Obasanjo taking over until he left in '79 to an elected leader. Shehu Shagari of the NPN (National NG Party) ruled '79-'83, and regional polarisation, corruption and political violence increased, and fraud majority in the '83 election left a NCN majority, and the military seized power with Muhammadu Buhari gaining power, wishing dem return, but due to a failing eco, Ibrahim Babangida took over, and dem-isation was stalled to continue holding power. The '93 free election was annulled by the military, and leading to a change in leaders but stagnating dem-ing still occurred, ending when Sani Abacha died in '98, at majority PDP (People's Dem Party) won in '99. Obasanjo was called out of retirement to lead,and he set to recovering eco and decorrupting, and helping distribute the profits drawn from the oil revenue. He was nearly impeached, but gained re-election and PDP domination. NG has continually struggled w/ethnic variety, and military left behind a strong executive with weak legislative and judiciary. Strong locally but weak internationally, ruch locally but one of the 20 poorest countries globally. Dependent on oil revenue and lack of good growth.

Political Economy and Development
Most industry is state owned, with major growth due to gov spending. During colonial era, edo was ag dependent, and was self-sufficient with food, but gov neglect dropped productivity, and drought and famine caused massive imports. A focus to oil boomed, increasing public expenditure, and eventually spent too vigurously causing skyrocketing debt. Wealth increased w/corruption, w/$12.2G diverted '88-'93, and scamming grew especially online, where it became one of the top five 'industries' by '02 earning $100M/pa. Oil created dependence on external markets and skewed eco spending to it, worsening eco in the process. Bureaucracy grew to 60% of formal sector (3M), and privitisation was hoped to reduce gov spending, but manufacturers have not given much into the eco. Eco plans were common until '85, but wasn't an adequate tool. Anti-corruption commissions began during Obasajo's recent term and initiatives such as Vision 2010 and NEEDS tried correcting eco problems, and debt reliefe has been at the top of agendas. Social welfare is nonexistant, quality of life is terrible, poverty is rife w/70% <$1/d and the country is on the verge of an AIDS epidemic. Interethnic competition and religious cleavage has effected eco stability, and many groups such as those near the Delta have used new freedoms to address grievances, most of which has been peaceful, but some violence and military control has occured. Patriarchal pratices has also dropped ability for women to work, when they had been dominant before in ag and trading (8/469 seats are women), and many groups are growing to increase women's rights especially in the south. Only powerful locally, such as sending forces to Liberia and Sierra Leone to stabilise them and power in ECOWAS (Eco Community of West African States), but weak outside Africa: power during oil boom enough to control US slightly vis-à-vis Angola, but its weakness caused it to fail.

Governance
Even now debates are made over how and who rules the country: two continual options used are the Anglo-American model and military rule. There has been nine constitutions since 1914, but often weren't respected by leaders. The First Republic was relatively decentralised to each of the tree regions. The Second Republic (beginning '79) was more like the US. The Fourth Republic has been presidential model w/checks and balences. 34 states and 774 local govs empowered, judiciary like US, but are top-down and authoritarian due to military past, and effeorts have been made to create pluralism. Direct pres during 2nd Rep, during military rule heads of states varied widely from repressive regimes to weak leaders, and when Obasanjo came recently he controlled the country to help revamp eco and decorrupt. Attempts to reconsiliate with oppressed problematic, and helping areas of conflict such as the Delta region. The bureaucracy was less meritocratic and more based on patronage and ethnicity, and para-statals, or state owned enterprises, have been created to spur eco growth and provide necesities. The Judiciary used to be independent, but military rule has undermined the whole arm, eventually causing zero review posibilities for the gov. Now, they have been given leway and even gone against the wishes of the ruling parties. Some local judiciaries also run on shariah, and some want it nationalised, and enfearing X-ian minorities in the regions. New state creation leads to more officials in a power to divert funds, with doubling occurring under Babangida and Abacha's rules. Modernly, they are weak and dependent, with 90% of funds coming from fed gov. Parties are often aligned to states in a specific region, dependant on a specific minority. Lack of confidence leads to lack of tax payments, creating a vicious cycle. Policy creation has been made top-down, creating a near-military scructure in gov.

Representation
Legislature suffered neglect during military rule, leading to elected politicians in '99 not knowing how to work the system properly. Current system (former ones were like the UK then the US) has senate based on membership per state, and majorities by PNP lead to easy bribery. The pres has more power over money than US. First new policies were based on money distribution, and some politicians had to resign for being too young or corruption, being held back by pres Obasanjo. 80% of former legislators in '99 weren't reelected in '03. Lack of authoritarian party means cleavages between social groups on parties. Strong gains by parties which aligned strongly with ethnicity, and changes with the Republics didn't change allegiances with parties/groups. General Babangida in '89 decreed only two parties should exist, one leftistish (Social Dem Party) and one rightistish (Nat Rep Convention) (or is it the other way round) which surprisingly went over ethnicity and locality. Abacha removed both the parties in '93, and riots over this halted the eco in '94, and he began a new program w/5 parties. By '97, noone knew what each party represented, and it became moot. The surprise death of Abacha 8Jun98 led to new leader Abubakar speeding transition, and new parties grew. New rules tried to restrict ethnicity based parties by making multiplicity a necessity, leaving only the PDP (People's Dem Party), AD (Alliance for Dem) and APP (All Peoples Party), but were dependant on personalities more than policies. Military rule left authoritarianist in society. The nation is straddled between the modern/Western and the traditional/African cultures. Religion is a strong id, between Islam and X-ity, which have clashed, and shariah spreading threatens secularism. The press has been more lively than its neighbours, and exposés have brought down public figures.Political culture is still dominated by urban elites, organised labour has often been powerful to control gov and eco, many 'pirate capitalists' have corrupted business and gov and student activism had been powerful.

Transition
Democratisation was coordinated from above, in contrast with EEU. Major problem creating major multiethnic party, especially in opposing position to hinder corruption. Problems reconciliating power locally w/lack internationally, helping eco and keep dem.

Making of the Modern
Muhammad Khatami won in '97 by a landslide, surprising everyone, and even bigger in '01. He stressed need for 'dialogue between civilisations', vs Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini's cry of the US as 'Great Satan', inciting students to strom the US embassy and hold it for 444 days in '79. Khatami's arrival surprising because the mosque supported his rival, and he liberalised and said no fatwa to the US. Iran is a mix of theocracy and democracy, with elected Majles and clerical Guardian Council. Most of land is inhospitable to ag, centred in major cities. Oil revenues have compensated eco dev w/$28G in '04, second largest producer of oil in mideast and fourth in world, and they have higher living standards than most of Asia and Africa. Iran is the major crossroad (Europe Asia et al). 51% speak Farsi/Persian, 26% Turkic languages, and only 3% Arabic. The Safavids, shi'ites, conquered tribes in modern IR, to better unicify themselves, and by mid17thcent 90% were Shi'i, with minor cases of Sunnism and others, but were tolerated: Christian, Jew and Zoroastrian by People of the Book. Cost prevented bureaucracy, and was largely tribal. After Safavid collapse in 1722, civil war for 50 years, then Qajar recreation with central manipulation, with Shi'i state religion. IR was affected by EU impersialism, reached debt, then had constitutional revolution 1905-09, with the new '06 constitution w/election, sep-of-powers, minority rights/guaranteed seats, et al, with some even voting for secularism. However, only Shi'is can hold cabinet seats and Shi'ism was still state religion. Some tried implementing Shariah. Lack of money also halted control or tax collection. A military coup d'etat by Colonel Reza Khan deposed the Qajars, crowned himself shah and established the Pahlavi dynasty, the first to rule all Iran, ruling w/iron fist. UK and USSR invaded in '41 to prevent DE foothold, causing him to abdicate for his son, ruling for 20yrs. He had to cope w/comm Tudeh Party, whose leader, Dr. Muhammad Mossaddeq became PM in '53, but a CIA financed coup overthrew him installing an absolute, appearing puppet, shah. Law was secularised/de-Shariaed, and there was centralisation, industrialisation and soc dev. One party state declaired in '75. "50 Incidents of Treason During 50yrs of Treason" in '79 IR-ex-pat paper accused shah of military dictatorship, undermining nat id, creating landless peasants, prompting exiled Ayatollah Khomeini to create 'Islamic fundamentalism', denouncing monarchies and exploiting oppressed. Sparks to revolution were eco difficulties in '77-'78, pressure from UN for human rights. Bloody Friday on 8Sep78. Eventually, 2M protestors. The shah was exiled and died, and Khomeini gained power, proclaiming the Islamic Republic. State-owned media prevented opposition, and pwoer was consolidated by the clerics. Khomeini's death in '89 replaced w/Ali Khamenei, less charismatic. Drop in oil halted eco dev, problem of mass participation overn intrenched consie clergy. Post9/11: IR was a member of the Axis of Evil, and Bush urged the people to liberate themselves, but no war coz IR is too big to occupy but too small to be a threat, but ironically the deposition of Hussein and the Taliban removed IR's major enemies. Problems w/ reconciling democracy w/ theocracy. Most dominant Gulf power, and a possible 'clash of civilisations'

Political Economy and Development
IR became part of the world system late19thcent, but previously was part of routes CN-EU, and expansion grew due to rail and telegraph. Exports were carpets and ag products like silk, rice, tobacco and opium, with imports of mostly industrial products. Trade created eco dependency, like most of the Third World, manufactured good ruined traditional crafts, and cash crops were produced instead of food crops, creating famines. Oil also propelled the eco, financing 90% of imports and 80% of the national budget, allowing it to create massive development, but this created little taxation/representation and diversifying eco didn't work, with 97% eco still on oil by '79. Much of the oil money was squandered, but much was also put into social development, becoming one of the fastest developing Third World countries, with edu, health and GDP growth. However, little was trickling down and many peasents became landless. Some small industrialisation was created but too little, health and edu was still terrible, and pop explosion caused massive income disparity. Class was coupled with modern/traditional divisions, with majority lower traditional/rural (45%). Gharbzadegi (Plague from the West) pamphlet claimed West and urbanisation was destroying Iran, and Ali Shariati argued that humanity was constantly in struggle due to learning of Marxism, using Imam Husayn as a matyr. Oil led to the Shah to play a role in international politics, w/2nd largest OPEC nation and was able to finance militarily and strategic possession of islands that controlled the Strait of Hormuz and therefore the Gulf. Its power led to controlling its near neighbours. After the Revolution, dropping oil prices and othre producers such as UK and Mexico led to losing in eco. Pop booms strained resources, GDP halved, inflation reached 20-30%pa, but there has been some development rurally and in other ways, generally improving the lives of IR's poor (liuteracy, birth control, water, roads, copnsumer goods). Recent boom in oil has wiped debt, strengthened eco and helped strengthen infrastructure and investments.

Governance
Unique democratic theocracy. The Leader, originally Khomeini, was imam of IR and he was given wide power to link the three branches, was commander-in-cheif and nominates chief judges, half (6/12) the Guardian Council which can veto bills and various religious officials. The Assembly of Religious Experts have also gained power on the theocratic side, effectively becoming an upper house. Laws are supposed to be shariah and therefore interpreted by the clergy. The pres is elected quadrennially, must be Shi'a and proposes legislation, chooses officials. The bureaucracy has grown post-Revolution, the Cultural and Islamic Guidance Ministry enforces public conduct, and the clergy monopolises the bureacracy. There are many smeipublic institutions who are controlled by clergy but are otherwise independent, the army is easily controlled byt the government, shariah's control of courts has caused some modern lawyers to resign in disgust but has become Westernised especially with punishment, and the nation is highly centralised and local elections only occured in '99, and in '03 there was high absention. Policy making is cumbersome and fractional, clerics gradually divided into two groups, conservative and statist, creating gridlock.

Representation
If the people want theocracy, is theocracy a democracy? The Majles (290 members over 16yo) are elected by the public and can create laws with the approval of the the Guardian Council, choose half the members of the Council, remove cabinet members through 0confidence. Political Parties were encouraged until Khatami lead in '97, with major parties being the Islamic IR Participation Front, the Islamic Labour Party (both founded by Khatami), Servants of Reconstruction, the Liberation Movement, the National Front, the Mojahedin, the Fedayin and the Tudeh, or the Party of the Masses. Elections are theoretically free but are restricted by Guardian Council's control over candidates, banning anti-Islamic parties. First Majles were diverse ideologically and lively competition led to some ballot boxes being impounded and postponing the second round of elections. The later Majles had a more restricted opposition, making all parties against imperialism, capitalism, comm and supported Islam. but the recent 2000 Majles election was the first orderly and competitive, with reforms winning by landslide, who over the next two years to refom common shariah interpretations, but many were blocked by the Guardian Council. Essentially Shi'a, but gives rights to religious minorities and non-Persian speakers, but more theoretically and many have left since the Revolution. The Baha'is have been the worst off, and Sunnis have been compromised. Early in the Republic liberty was compromised, and uni students are powerful when protesting.

Transition
Theocracy and democracy. External forces, such as Bush saying Iran is part of the 'Axis of Evil'. Unlike the rest of the Third Worls it is old and has old institutions, and has strong connections with the people. Eco is undeveloped and oil dependent

Making of the Modern
Winning of the 2008 Olympics proved the modernness of PRC, but many have objected by saying the oppressive governmetn is being rewarded (c.f. 1936 Berlin Games), and other suggest that positive change could occur (c.f. Seoul 1988). CN is one of the few comm countries left, but has experienced liberalisation. Strategically important regions and bordered by physical barriers. 22 provinces, 5 autonomous regions, 4 cities and the Special Admin Regions of Hong Kong and Macau. Rich in nat resources, but growth has led to looking for foreign resources. Equal size to US but 1.3G people and 140 cities >1M w/largest Shanghai, Beijing and Tianjian, highly concentrated on the eastern seaboard, the Yellow River, the Yangzi and the Pearl River. 92% Han Chinese and 50 minorities making up the rest. One of the oldest cultures on the planet, unified in [221 BC lasting until it was overthrown in 1911. Imperial China had a strong bureaucracy, urbanised faster than Europe and its society made the empire stronger, supported by Confucianism. When the Mongols and Manchus conquered China and revolutions took over they still set up dynasties not unlike what was before. A pop explosing led to the Taiping Rebellion 1850-1864 that made 20M dead. West trade, which uninterested China, compelled it and, after the Opium Wars 1839-1842 unequal treaties left its borders open and lost control of its eco. ROC was founded 1Jan1912 w/Dr. Sun Yat-sen as pres, but couldn't hold power due to conflicts, and organised the Guomindang or Nationalist Party. '21 had the ZH comm party, CCP, created, and set to fighting the Nationalists in '24 but was stopped when Chiang Kai-shek, Dr. Sun's successor, wiped out the comms and unify the ROC under his rule. Comms retreated into the countryside, ironically leading to the conditions that led it to poewr under Mao Zedong, with the Long March '34-'35. JP invaded in '37, pushing the Nationalists south but met Mao's guerilla warfare. After WWIIend, the comms grew in popularity and the ROC shrunk retreating to Taiwan. The PRC was proclaimed at Tiananmen Square 1Oct49. PRC started to distribute land, eliminate opium, gave rights to women and stopped prostitution. They went towards socialism, but gained some criticism over the Hundred Flowers Movement, and accused 100Ms of being enemies to the revolution and sent to labour camps. The Great Leap Forward '58-'60 aimed for comm and eco dev, but was a flop, with 20-30M death famine, making Mao let Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping take care of day-to-day matters. The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution '66-'76 tried returing PRC to socialism, like the Great Leap Forward but more violently, ending when Mao died Sep76. Deng Xiaoping led PRC to break with Maoism and loosened eco and art repression, causing an eco boom. Tiananmen Square Massacre then occured due to protests over public discontent, which led to repression. Power was gradually turned over to Jiang Zemin, continuing PRC's growth, gradually becoming part of the WTO in '01. Jiang retired in '03 and Hu Jingtao took power, a technocrat like his predecessor. PRC was weak in '49 but has grown in eco and military, becoming one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council. PRC-USA relations have been the most important post Cold War, and a strong post911 ally and will need each other to help w/North Korea. Eco has controlled ZH, dem has been undermined and there is strong national id.

Political Economy and Development
Eco growth since '70s has been "one of the centuries greatest economic miracles", has the second largest eco behind US, income has risen 20x rurally 15x urbanly, 300M have been raised from poverty. In the Maoist era, the first point was to stabilise eco and ran it, but badly. Under Deng Xiaoping, reforms took place and reduced gov control in eco, becoming market friendly. SOEs (state owned enterprises) quartered in number, 90% of Beijing business is private, national GDP grows 7.6%pa. Socialist market eco. Land reform and redistribution created collective lands in communes, but has been freed with individual contracts, and rural industry spreading was one of the fastest growing PRC eco sectors, but have been used too much for money rather than public support and income levels have stagnated or even dropped. Market eco transformation has been considered by some too be going too fast, and hope that they can prove only strong govs can stabilise the eco. Market freedom has brought freedom but also crime increase and prostitution. Work now depend on effort, making people work harder, but raises unemployment, health care is failing, many people are migrating to cities, and corruption has grown. Inequality has grown, not only eco but also gender, leading to high rural female suicide, and environment damage mean 80% of PRC's rivers are polluted and rural areas are the dirtiest in the world. After Deng, trade became the central component of eco drive, becoming the third largest trading nation by '04 after US and DE worth $1.1T, much of it w/East Asia (JP, KR, Hong Kong and Taiwan) and the US, surpassing JP as country with the largest trade deficit w/US w/outsourcing. Foreign investment has increased from 0 to consuming $150G in '04, and is even becoming a foreign investor itself. Became part of WTO in Dec01, which prompted changes in tariffs and foreign access.

Governance
Only comm nations left are Cuba, North Korea, Laos, Vietnam and the PRC. Mao had supremacy with his Little Red Book becoming the Bible (Maoism), which was changed with the addition of Deng Xiaoping theory, focusing on eco change over revolution and the people have lost faith in them due to irratic leadership. The country is ruled by the Constitution, which is changed on whim by the party, less a document than a statement. The PRG gov is seperate from the Comm Party, but the party controls the gov due to no other parties. Personal connections are/have been more important than formal arraingements: even after Deng lost power and was ill he still had to have approval on anything. The party is more symbolic, essentially agreeing with what the leader says. The strongest organisations are the top excecutives: the 24 member Politburo and its 9 member Standing Committee. Top position was chairman of the Committee, and shift from Mao-Deng to Jiang-Hu went from revolutionary to technocratic. Comm party has a heirarchy from top to bottom, subject to their higher-ups. The bureaucracy varies in size depending on level of planning needed, but has about 40M members, but most of them just hold positions like teachers or heads of state run institutions. Plans have been made to reduce its size by 10% 5-10yrs, and even to limit officials time in power. The military (the People's Liberation Army of PLA) is the world's largest force w/2.3M but low per capita (2.18/1M of pop) and has required service, but is being reduced and is spent on less than the US. The military hasn't had formal power but Mao and Deng had military leadership. Labour reform camps theoretically have >M worker, but says it will be curtailed. People's Court has four tiers (provincial, city, county and township) and ceased to work during the Cultural Revolution. The courts to really well against constomer fraud and various non-political grievances. 98%-99% criminal conviction rate and 3500 death penalties. They are ruled by the party (obviously). Hierarchies mean everyone is supervised by theigh superiors and by the party on the same level as them.

Representation
Socialist democracy. Representation and participation are important and there are many ways the public can influence the government, although they are all controled by the party. The National People's Congress is unicameral, has 3M members based either geographically or to represent the PLA., 73% are Party members with others from minor powerless parties or are partyless. Policies are passed or blocked by vast majorities, and eco has replaced ideology as a main priority. The CCP has 70M members, 5% of PRC pop, the largest party globally. The Comm Youth League also has 70M 14-28yo. 8 noncomm parties exist but total 1/2M membership and are opposition. Elections are just mechanisms to promote the CCP's legimacy, and are indirect: the lower downs vote for the higherups, and pre80s only one candidate was available for some posts, but has since been changed to allow multiple candidates and secrt ballot. The Four Cardial Points of upholding socialist road, the people's democratic dictatorship, the leadership of the commparty and Marxism-Leninism was created by Deng, but replaced with the Three Represents by Jiang. The CCP tries continuing the comm ideologies they have created. No press freedom, internet cafes have been reduced tightened by a few ISPs, schools are censored and religion, which was repressed during the Mao era, has been growing due to freedom given recently. Ctrong national id creating strong patriotic ideas for CCP. Non-Chinese, making 100M in 56 groups ranging from Zhuang at 16M to 2k Lhoba, concentrated around tehe Autonomous Regions, sparsely populated but 60% of PRC area. Theoretical autonomy but loose in eco control or edu/art. Most extensive conflict is over Tibet. 20M PRC Muslims in Xingang, wanting to create East Turkestan, but were cracked down upon post911. Patron-client politics strong and independent organisations aren't allowed political control in any way. The largest is the ACFTU (All-China Fed of Trade Unions). Many NGOs have grown aswell, but must register w/gov and steer clear of politics. No major public protests or demonstrations post Tiananmen Square, and small protests occur near PRC borders, such as Falun Gong

Transition
Change rurally. Eco buying legimacy of CCP. Aging without becoming rich abnnormal (cf. DE/JP) and AIDS potentially could crisis. Dem problems: not likely to become dem as it has never been for Myrs, but demisation in Taiwan creates hope for deming PRC. Totalitarianistic comm worked, but why? Third world status.