User:Zokress/sandbox

History
Jewish ethics is the intersection of Judaism and the philosophical discipline of ethics. Most Jewish ethical texts derive from the Hebrew Bible. For centuries, the biblical literature has served as a “primary source for the development of Jewish moral concepts and ethical reflection.” Tracing back to ancient rabbinic Judaism, scholars have sought to develop ethics and a moral code of conduct based on their understanding of the written Torah. Pirkei Avot, a compilation of ethical teachings in the Talmud, was written by the rabbis of the MishnaicMishnaic period. It outlines the Torah’s views on ethics and interpersonal relationships and it is the only part of the Talmud not containing laws. Jewish ethics continued to expand in the Middle Ages as great Jewish thinkers including Moses Maimonides, Saadya Gaon, and Bahya ben Joseph ibn Paquda greatly contributed to moral Jewish thought. During the 19th and 20th centuries, Jewish ethics flourished, in part due to the development of the different denominations or branched of Judaism. There are many different scholars who have influenced contemporary Jewish ethics including Hermann Cohen, Martin Buber, and Emmanuel Levinas. Still, in recent decades, the interpretation and reinterpretation of Jewish ethics continues to be a source of debate among scholars.

In the 1970s,Feminist Jewish scholars entered this debate. The Jewish feminist movement emerged as part of the Second Wave of Feminism in an attempt to As a result of the feminist Jewish movement, many changes were made in the status and treatment of Jewish women, most notably regarding worship, liturgy, and the practices of niddah and the mikveh.

Along with changes to the treatment of women, there were new developments in feminist Jewish scholarship and thought. Prior to the 1970s and 1980s, women’s voices were excluded from the predominantly male-oriented practices and texts of Judaism. Feminist Jewish-thought scholars have attempted to create a theological narrative that merges feminism with Judaism. According to Judith Plaskow, one of the first Jewish feminist theologians, early Jewish feminists were mainly concerned with the exclusion of women from the minyan, positive time-bound mitzvot, and the inability for women to serve as witnesses and to initiate divorce. Today, the dilemmas posed for Jewish feminist theologians extend beyond the original issues by tackling problems of women in liturgy, biblical language, and sexuality. “Though all feminists believe that Judaism reflects a male bias, the extent to which each Jewish feminist believes Judaism and feminism are reconcilable” has shaped the multitude of ways feminist scholars have approached feminist Jewish thought.

One approach for many feminist Jewish theologians has been the belief that Judaism is patriarchalpatriarchial at its core and that a few alterations to Jewish practices do not compensate for gender inequality. They believe Judaism is a system that reflects a dominantly male-voice and one in which woman is viewed as “other”. It is their view that the current form of Judaism must be rejected. Feminist Jewish theologians have responded to this problem in a number ways. In the 1970s, Judith Plaskow, a Reform feminist theologian suggested the need for a complete re-imagining of Judaism. In many of her works, Plaskow addresses the problem of Judaism’s androcentric theology and argues that feminism “demands a new understanding of Torah, God, and Israel.” Not only must the male-dominated language of Judaism (such as the image of God as male and superior) be changed, but also a multiplicity of God images is an essential aspect of Jewish feminist theology. Furthermore, she promotes a Judaism in which the feminist mode of thought can help redefine the Jewish experience for women. From Plaskow’s point of view, Judaism must undergo a complete reimagining that not only focuses on contemporary Jewish problems, but one that delves into the theology behind Judaism.

Another approach by feminist Jewish theologians has sought to integrate female concerns and female voices into an existing model of Judaism. Blu Greenberg, an Orthodox Jew, is one such feminist who follows this model. In her most well known work, On Women and Judaism written in 1994, Greenberg presents a model for reconciling Judaism and feminism in a way that works within the boundaries of halakha and allows for “growth and greater equality in ritual and spiritual realms.” To accomplish this goal, Greenberg proposes many alterations to Jewish practices so that they more readily reflect women’s equality. Scholars who support this model are more likely to use traditional resources as a means to foster a feminist Judaism because Judaism appears to be less androcentric. Theologians such as Greenberg ultimately advocate for a movement where Halakhah embodies and expresses women’s concerns and infuses women’s concerns with Jewish values.

Rachel Adler, a Reform feminist Jewish theologian, has another approach for women’s place in Jewish ethics. Adler, in her work Engendering Judaism written in 1998, advocates for the use of gender to help understand the Jewish past and shape the Jewish future. Adler acknowledges that although traditional Jewish law has systematically ignored women’s voices, she also recognizes the centrality of Halacha. She thus envisions a Judaism, which would draw not only upon the totality of Jewish tradition and law, but also one in which gender and gender equality are central to the conversation, ultimately creating a more inclusive, engendered Judaism.

One other popular methodology used by feminist Jewish theologians is the belief that while there are gender inequalities within Judaism, they can be changed without altering the fundamentally traditional structures. Tamar Ross, in Expanding the Palace of Torah written in 2004, outlines a path for a more inclusive Orthodoxy of feminist values. She argues for a change within halakha, detailing halakhic legal tools that can allow for changes in Orthodoxy as well as providing theologies of revelation and God, which allow for the acceptance of these changes. In a similar fashion, Tova Hartman, in her work Feminism Encounters Traditional Judaism written in 2007, acknowledges the importance of biblical literatures, but argues for the rereading and reinterpretation of such texts to create a more inclusive Judaism for women.

Changes of Status of Women within Judaism
The multitude of scholars who have addressed the tension between feminism and Judaism with respect to theology has lead to significant changes within the different denominations of Judaism. For instance, women found the language of the traditional Judaic prayer book to be restrictive and lacking a feminine voice. The exclusion of matriarchs and sole use of male imagery to describe God suggested that public worship was primarily for men. In the early 1990s, prayer books began to include the names of the matriarchs as well as gender-sensitive God-language. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s many changes for women were made in synagogue life such as the inclusion of women in liturgical positions and the ability to form a minyan. In 1972, the Reform Movement in the United States ordained the first female rabbi. For many Jewish women, the Reform Movement provided an ideal setting for women’s voices to be heard and their experiences to be central to Judaism rather than marginalized.

The Reconstructionist Movement soon followed in similar footsteps to those of Reform Judaism. Mordecai Kaplan, founder of Reconstructionist Judaism, was a strong advocate for the equality of women in Judaism. He argued in his essays, The Reconstructionist Papers, that Jewish law defines women as inferior to men and concludes that Jewish law must change and rid itself of these gender inequalities. In 1922, the first Bat Mitzvah occurred in a Reconstructionist synagogue, but it was not until 1974 that the Reconstrucionist Movement ordained its first female rabbi. Reconstructionism has allowed women to voice their concerns from social issues like domestic violence to religious inequalities such as the right for women to read from the Torah. The Reconstructionist Movement has moved beyond Kaplan’s original vision of equality toward a reconceptualization of Judaism through a feminist lens.”

Conservative Judaism, in recent years, has seen its position on women shift towards equality as well. The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards is the central authority on halakha within Conservative Judaism. By 1955, the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards permitted women to chant blessings before and after the Torah readings and in 1973, women counted as members of a minyan. Ten years later, in October of 1983, the Jewish Theological Seminary, the main education institution of the Conservative Movement, began accepting women in the rabbinical and cantorial schools. It ordained the first woman rabbi in the Conservative Movement in 1985. The Committee on Jewish Law Standards adopted three responsa in 2006 regarding the subject of middah. It reaffirmed the obligation of Conservative Jewish women to abstain from sexual relations during menstruation and the immersion in the mikveh, but has also loosened the restrictions regarding niddah.

The Orthodox Movement has also seen progression for women. While it has yet to accept women into its rabbinate, in the past few decades, women have gained new rights and opportunities. Orthodox Jewish women now have the ability to work as rabbinical advocates, family purity experts, and synagogue leaders. In the late 1970’s, women began to study Talmud and other Jewish texts. In the 1990’s, women took on the role of to’anot rabaniyot or rabbinical advocates, a job previously only available to men. The to’anot help divorcing couples navigate the tricky legal system. In 1997, women were permitted to train as yoatzot halakha, female Halakhic advisors who were knowledgeable in the laws and rituals regarding niddah and ritual purity. The details of these laws, which relate to menstruation as well as other issues of sexuality and women's health, render some women understandably uncomfortable in the presence of a male rabbi. Since the late 1990s, many Modern Orthodox synagogues in the United States have created congregational leadership positions for women such as community scholar or assistant congregational leader. These positions resemble the duties of the rabbi, however, these women are careful not call themselves rabbi. Orthodox interpretations of Jewish law continue to prevent women from counting as part of minyan and from bearing witness.