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The role of social media in Arab revolution

A) Introduction	Social media is clearly one of the most significant global leaps in human history. Digital media was very important in toppling regimes during the Arab Spring uprising, an indication that social media is indeed a sufficient and necessary condition for social and political activism. The Arab revolution revolved around a networked public of the younger population, and was structurally different from other previous movements spearheaded by a charismatic leader. Above everything, social media (Facebook and Twitter) was very instrumental in maintaining the momentum of protests that stated in Tunisia, and which also toppled two other dictators in Egypt and Libya, and continue to be felt in Syria to date (Lewis, 2011). Social media gave a new source of information that was hard for the regime to control, and was critical in shaping the way citizens made personal decisions about their participation in the protests. An analysis of facebook and twitter revels how social media contributed to Arab revolution.

B) The role of Facebook and Twitter	In many of the Arab countries that experienced the revolution, there had been many democracy movements that had for many years deployed many tactics which generally failed to make considerable impact. But it is the new media that made the difference in the Arab revolution, because it completely changed the way the citizenry think about their options. Authoritarian regimes in the Arab world had been traditionally accustomed to subdue and hold sway over traditional media; however, Facebook and Twitter presented them with a new challenge as they were not able to keep up with the pace in which information was being generated and shared on social media and especially on these two platforms (Fuchs, 2012). Facebook and Twitter also did more to spread information on the Arab spring outside the Arab countries affected by the revolution, which had a boomerang effect that effectively brought international pressure on those autocratic regimes. Facebook and Twitter were important and influential in media socialization, citizen journalism, and sharing of information and creating of the democratic movements. 1)	Media mobilization One of the defining features of the Arab spring is the relative speed in which it happened. In Egypt for instance, it took a mare 18 days for the aggressive activists to unseat Hosni Mubarak. It took 28 days in Tunisia and 9 months in Libya. Key to the acceleration of events especially in Egypt was the use of social media networks for mobilization and organizational infrastructure which was founded on virtual networks and translated to offline networks (Taki and Coretti, 2013). The activists were able to utilize the strengths of the social networking abilities of both Facebook and Twitter by utilizing on the “many-to-many’ communication features of and the rapid speed in which information can be transmitted, an inherent feature of social media. In Egypt for instance, there was a Wael Ghonim group on Facebook called We Are All Khaled Said which was an organizational platform that effectively brought together like-minded individuals, helping them connect a common interest such as commemorating Khaled Said. The We Are All Khaled soon evolved into a common interest and formed an opposition against the country’s police force, and later became an unstoppable force the eventually unseated Mubarak. During the Arab spring, Facebook and Twitter not only provided the all important organizational infrastructure as part of the mobilization, it also provided a fundamental platform for potential protesters to correspond and share their common grievances and concerns (Bhuyan, 2011). Such pages allowed many other activist networks (such as the April 6 movement) to network with one another. One an individual saw on social network that other people would be taking part in a protest; they were very likely to equally join in. Such was the power of social media in mobilization as witnessed in the Arab revolution. Eventually, through such mobilization, there comes a time when a tipping point occurs and the protest reaches a point where it becomes self-reinforcing. At such a point, the protest or activity thrives and increases in momentum without direct action or organization by its leadership (Taki and Coretti, 2013). In the case of the Arab spring, once a demonstration plan was put in place, word would be spread in offline communities because it was essential to reach much of the Arab population in the respective countries affected. 2)	Citizen journalism 	With its low entry barriers, social media provides an avenue for alternative press. It provides an easy to access platform that supports citizen journalism. Citizen journalism is the use of digital media to report about an event in real time and on the ground by uploading videos, pictures and texts directly to the internet, or opting to feed the same to a the mainstream media (Taki and Coretti, 2013). Further, the mainstream media as a critical source of information used much of the dialogue that happened through Facebook and Twitter at the height of the Arab spring. Al-Jazeera for instance relied heavily on some reputable bloggers and Twitter users during the revolution for real-time coverage of events. The media outlet relied on such citizen media platforms like Sharek, which received and sorted through a bountiful of submissions made by citizen journalists. A strategy generally worked when media outlets identified and enlisted key bloggers in the respective countries when the protests were looming and just broke out. These bloggers would act as citizen reporters; the media would later verify the information later on. There are several accuracy issues relating to citizen journalism, however in the case of the Arab revolution, social media allowed individual and groups directly involved in the protest to shape and share their own narrative, thereby exposing themselves to the international audience (Ghannan, 2011). Social media indeed offers a tool for ordinary citizens to document event and tell their experiences. It gave the ordinary citizens during the Arab spring the avenue of collaboration between social media and mainstream media where they were able to get a platform for their own narratives (Lewis, 2011). 3)	Sharing of the information, creation of the democratic movements.	Much has been noted about the role of the internet in generating awareness and sharing of information in the Arab uprising in the Middle East as well as internationally. This forms a perfect example of how movements that were started online eventually became offline movements where they gained the much attention. A poll conducted by the Arab Social Media Report found out that many of the Facebook users agreed that the social networking cite was used very effectively to share information of the causes of the movements in those respective countries (York, 2011). A good example is the Facebook page We Are All Khaled which was created for the purpose of this young blogger who was allegedly brutally murdered by the police. The group attracted a whopping 500,000 members in a short span of time, and was used by members to share the graphic photos of the slain blogger around the net. The creator of the group Wael Ghonim who was a Google executive exploited Facebook’s networking capabilities to spearhead an effective cyberactivism campaign against a repulsive and extremely corrupt country. Sharing of information and creating of the democratic movements fits well with the ideas of cyberactivism because it involves using the net to further a political cause that would prove difficult to carryout offline (Fuchs, 2012). The concept of such activism is usually to create an impactful and emotionally compelling platform that shares information and stories around the issues of injustice; they also interpret history and advance certain political outcomes. Many of such groups as used during the Arab revolution did indeed chart the way for democratic movements as they had political outcomes. The use of Facebook and Twitter for political ends evoked a new consciousness in the Arab region that had political implications due to the networking capabilities of the two social networks (Bruns, Highfield & Burgess, 2013).

C) Psychological Approach       1) Psychological barriers were broken It has been commonplace for many Arab countries to have fully armed soldiers guarding the national television and radio premises apparently to protect the broadcast assets of those countries from getting commandeered or influenced in the event of attempted mutiny or revolutions. However, this well guarded asset no longer is the prime mode of expressing or disseminating information. Today, the internet has opened a new communication platform when it comes to accessing ideas generated by others and also in terms of personal or individual expression (Bhuiyan, 2011). Like stated the influence of social media became very evident during the Arab revolution, allowing the masses to source, coordinate and schedule large-scale protests and demonstrations. To a great extent, social media broke the psychological barrier of fear because it helped many to connect and freely share information. In addition, it gave many people in the Arab world the feeling that they were not really alone in such experience, and that there were others who were equally experiencing similar brutalities, injustices and hardships (York, 2011). There is probably nowhere in the world where there have been such distinguished use of social media to promote principles of democracy as visibly as it did in Tunisia, Egypt and Libya. The social networking cites were used to quickly generate and disseminate information that government couldn’t control or suppress. 2) Support from the side of the International Community (USA; EU).	The Arab revolution presented the USA and EU with real test to their foreign policy. The event a delicate challenge to the entire international community, but especially the two actors as it served as an opportunity to them to regain the credibility they had lost within the Middle East for many years. However, many have criticized the two players for having not come up with an adequate response to the Arab spring. The West was accused frequently of its political indecisiveness, lack of bold initiatives and double standards when it came to dealing with the Arab awakening. During those revolts in the various Arab countries, there was little that international actors could do to contribute to democratic change. However, their support was felt, albeit marginally in freezing assets, issuing travel advisories and bans and probably the most effective, which is issuing oil sanctions. The one major instance where the western actors got heavily involved in influencing the outcomes the Arab revolution it did not wield the much-expected success. However, the military intervention in Libya was generally successful. As is the mandate of the UN (which even got the node of the Arab League) NATO has managed to prevent much bloodshed and massacres of the civilian population under Gaddafi as he had threatened when the revolution was just beginning. Initially NATO had committed to play a non partisan role and only get involved in protecting civilians, however, it had to change its strategy faced with a looming military stalemate. It ended up siding with the activists and the rebels matching towards Tripoli where they managed to defeat Gaddafi’s war machine (Lewis, 2011).

D. Twitter, Facebook as real guns 1) Comparison of social networks with real weapons 	It is becoming evident now more than ever that many revolutions are being achieved through a serious of consciousness as opposed to through real weaponry. We are now in a period of the most distinguished revolution in human history. It is a revolution characterized by raising consciousness, holding governments and corporations accountable and empowering the masses. Social networking cites like Facebook and Twitter are the hub of this revolution, where real power is now no longer with the wielders of ammunition, but with ordinary people like you who could be readers, bloggers, customers and activists. Thanks to the internet, this revolution is being spread at the speed of broadband connections (Bruns, Highfield & Burgess, 2013). 	Today, unlike before, new finding and information can be disseminated to tens of millions of people at the click of a button. The magnitude and speed that such information is spread bypasses the controllers and gatekeepers of mainstream media and more importantly, the political spin doctors. These social networking tools have been used to effectively spark nationwide revolutions (like they did with the Arab Spring) spreading information that cause heightened awareness precipitating action (Ghannan, 2011). The most powerful revolutions are indeed the silent revolutions. These are revolutions that take place when following a buildup of ideas in the minds of the people. These kinds of revolutions are as driven through social media are the real guns; more powerful than bullets and bombs.

2) Estimation of its power and importance on the revolutions.	In the light of the 2011 Arab uprising, social media was heralded as very important in facilitating the revolution. The use of social media during the Arab spring as a tool for political mobilization has originated a budding dialogue on the place of social media in revolutions (Fuchs, 2012). Many political pundits and academicians have contended that social media is an indispensable force that is here for good. Democracy is today just a tweet away. Liberation is coming to the people through the internet, where it is being seen as an effective weapon for the weak and downtrodden against their authoritarian leaders (Howard, 2011). Social media has indeed become the quintessential conflict of the 20th century; where on one side is an insensitive government’s force firing bullets, while on the other are masses made up of young activists and protestors firing “tweets”. The phrase “Twitter revolutions” was already in use even before the Arab spring (as embraced by the international media). The phrase leads to an impression of a young and tech-savvy generation which is hip who are bent on monopolizing the “digital gap” to unseat their archaic dictatorial rulers (Bhuiyan, 2011).

D. Conclusion. This paper has examined the role of social media in the Arab revolution that stated in 2011. There are divergent opinions on the influence that social media had on mobilizing the Arab revolution, and it has been argued in this research that its main roles included providing the necessary organizational infrastructure for mobilization, as an alternative press, or citizen journalism and for generally creating awareness and providing information (locally and globally) necessary about the revolution. Analyzing the manner in which the activists deployed social media tools, one can clearly see the underlying characteristics of social networks that were used to promote the requirements needed for collective action. Nevertheless, despite the successes of social media in organizing the revolution it would be important to point out that that beyond the revolution, social media has been very useful in making the very demands of the protesters a political reality. There is need for a further research on the use of social media in the three Arab countries in the post-revolution period particularly on its role of establishing new political movements or civil society groups.

The Big Bang Theory: Content Analysis
The Big Bang Theory: Content Analysis

The Big Bang Theory is one of the most popular sitcoms running today, as demonstrated by its impressive viewership statistics and awards won. Bibel (2013) reports 2012-2013 viewership among the 18-49 age bracket highlighting The Big Bang Theory as not only the most viewed sitcom, but also the most viewed scripted show on television, ranking only behind Sunday Night Football. According to Beahm (2011), such success is premised on the positive portrayal of geeks and geek culture that is unique from most other shows. However, a number of observers strongly differ about the representation of geeks in the show, finding it unauthentic rather than positive (Dickens, 2013; Pirone, 2013). As one of the television series consistently performing among the highest rated sitcoms, The Big Bang Theory provides an appropriate television show to analyze representation of a group of people in society. The analysis seeks to determine whether the show’s representation of geeks and nerd culture is accurate or stereotypical, employing an audience and content analysis approach to view the themes across The Big Bang Theory episodes. A number of scholars have investigated various aspects of The Big Bang Theory, underpinning its position as a highly rated and influential show. Bednarek (2012) investigated the construction of nerdiness in television through focusing on one of The Big Bang Theory’s main characters, Sheldon Cooper. The study employed a linguistic construction framework, using computer analysis of dialogue in the show to analyze explicit and implicit cues based on the (im)politeness theory. The scholar analyzed Sheldon’s lingual repertoire to determine linguistic deviances used to portray the character as somehow abnormal, rude, antisocial, and not quite human. The study established that the show used Sheldon’s dialogues and speech to project a geek social identity that drew on stereotypes and shared knowledge with audiences. In a similar study, McGrath (2014) investigated the use of communication deficiencies as a tool for achieving incongruities leading to humor in The Big Bang Theory. The scholar noted that the comedy in The Big Bang Theory mostly arises from the quirkiness of the nerdy characters in the show. Focusing on Sheldon Cooper, the study demonstrates how deficiencies in communication and resultant dysfunctional relationships create comic effect in the show, which arises from the premise that communication is always funny when unfolding outside social norms. The findings also highlight the strong relationship between the portrayal of Sheldon’s awkwardness and idiosyncrasies and perceptions of mental dysfunctions. In this case, the study indicates that many Asperger’s and autism specialists consider Sheldon as presenting with symptoms of Asperger’s syndrome and falling within the autism spectrum. These findings indicate that the producers have drawn from communication difficulties related to autism and Asperger’s syndrome to characterize nerdish behavior and establish communication difficulties as the bases of the show’s comic effect. In another study, Cardiel (2012) undertook a longitudinal investigation of nerd representation in popular television over a period of 20 years. The study explored the five most popular scripted shows in a year, whereby The Big Bang Theory featured in 2011. The study also undertook a supplemental survey of audiences to collect public opinion on their perceptions of nerds represented on television. The findings of the study indicated little change in how television shows represented nerds such as Sheldon over the years. The results highlighted the use of low social competence and unattractiveness as the main predictors of nerd characters alongside technological expertise. In addition, the study established that television overwhelmingly and consistently portrayed nerds as white males. Lapacek-Trout’s (2014) study explored the representation of nerd culture in network, web, and cable television, employing The Big Bang Theory as one of the five cases for analysis. The study used the theory of the culture commodification to determine the authenticity of the portrayal of nerd culture in the television shows selected. The findings from literature and textual analysis of the shows indicated that television shows designed for mass consumption exploited nerd culture stereotypes and presented certain nerd characteristics as forms of social warning. In addition, the scholar established that television shows designed for niche nerd audiences were closer to authentic nerd culture, which the scholar conceives as a community of individuals with shared interest wishing to create and express their uniqueness. This study is especially important in the present investigation because it analyzes the differences in portrayal of nerds between television shows meant for mass audiences and those meant for niche audiences. In this case, The Big Bang Theory is presented as a show that seeks to celebrate nerd culture (Beahm, 2011), which would translate to niche inclinations, but is produced for mass audiences, raising issues in how the show depicts nerds and nerd culture. The pertinent questions concern whether the show employs nerd stereotyping to appeal to mass audiences, which would represent commodification of nerd culture, or whether the show aims for authenticity in its representation of nerd culture. The present study will analyze the representation of nerds and nerd culture in The Big Bang Theory mainly based on how the show creates humor from nerd culture. In this case, Mills (2009) notes that sitcoms use the laugh track to offer an explicit audience position that makes sense to the majority while inevitably sidelining the views and ideologies of minority and other excluded groups. Based on the findings of Lapacek-Trout (2014), a show such as The Big Bang Theory may seek to appeal to a mass audience while sidelining a minority, which is of concern because the minority for The Big Bang Theory would represent the same nerds on which the producers premise the show. Here, The Big Bang Theory is premised as a show centering on positive representation of nerds (Kowalski, 2012). Beahm (2011) argues that The Big Bang Theory is unlike most other shows portraying nerds because it celebrates their culture. Further, Clemens (2013) indicates that much of the success of The Big Bang Theory arises from its writing while the show itself had positive effects on science and promoted interests in physics and technology among college students. As a result, perceptions by nerd audiences that the show follows the traditional pattern of ridiculing nerd culture and promoting hegemonic gender perceptions about nerd culture is of concern, as the show would then exclude the views of nerd audiences on which it bases it characters. For instance, Dickens (2013) argues that The Big Bang Theory only claims to understand nerds but fails at it, as its representation of nerd culture as belonging to males while females remain as outsiders is a gross misrepresentation. Pirone (2013) agrees, noting that the show embraces and furthers the idea that women cannot be geeks, in the process failing to understand nerd culture and amplifying media sexism. In another example, the blog Shouting Into The Void asks the reader to follow the laugh track on The Big Bang Theory to realize that the show asks the audience to laugh at the nerds rather than with them, which positions would position nerd audiences as outsiders more in line with the character of Penny. Further, the blog notes that Sheldon’s characterization employs aspects of Asperger’s Syndrome. These views concur with Bednarek’s (2012) observation that The Big Bang Theory’s source of comic effect lies in its presentation of nerdish characters as socially awkward and quirky, which aligns with traditional portrayal of nerds in other shows rather than representing a shift in how nerd culture is represented. Ultimately, the issue highlights the question of the audience served by the show as discussed by Mills (2009), where serving the interests of a mass audience may lead to exclusion of minority parties. Based on the aforementioned arguments, the main research question is as follows. Does the representation of nerds and nerd culture in The Big Bang Theory amount to the exclusion of nerd audiences as a minority group? Method The present study will use representation as its method of inquiry in answering the research question. In this case, representation arises as a method of television show analysis because the television medium maintains an interest in documenting what happens in the present moment and engaging the lives of the viewers (O'Donnell, 2012). This traditional basis of television arises from television’s connection to realism, where television shows represent recognizable and contemporary experiences and characters. According to Bignell (2013), representation as a means of analyzing television text entails three main considerations, namely production, codes and conventions, and reception. In terms of production, the issue revolves around identifying who is undertaking the representation. Codes and conventions concern the items of representation and how a television show undertakes such representation. Here, codes represent system or set of rules that shape the usage of signs and resultant creation and understanding of meaning. In terms of reception, the analysis covers how audiences understand and receive representation (Bignell, 2013). In the present study, the use representation follows the latter two conceptions entailing codes and conventions and reception of such representation by audiences. The content analysis of The Big Bang Theory’s representation of nerds and nerd culture will entail a critical examination of the codes and conventions determining the themes, dialogues, intertextualization with other media, patterns, and stereotypes in The Big Bang Theory, as well as what the show leaves out or ignores about nerds when representing them on television (Bignell, 2013). The study will then analyze how nerds may perceive the representation of nerds and nerd culture in the show, especially considering that the show is mainly based on representing their lives. Various scholars have employed the representation framework as a tool for analyzing television content and related media such as film and magazines. For instance, Prieller, Kohlbacher, Hagiwara, and Arima (2009) investigated the representation of older people in Japanese commercials based on a content analysis approach. The scholars analyzed 1495 commercials in 1997 and 1477 commercials in 2007, comparing aspects such as age distribution, product categories, and gender considerations. The findings indicated that the elderly received high representation in 2007 than in 1997, interpreted as unfolding alongside the aging Japanese population. In terms of product categories, the commercials represented the population as being more interested in food/beverages and real estate than household products, machinery, and publications among other items. In addition, unlike other age categories in which females outnumbered men in representation in television commercials, the number of males outnumbered females by about twice in television commercials for the ages of 50 and above. In another study employing representation as a content analysis tool, Lowe (2007) explored the effect of the emergence of the “ordinary celebrity” on the representation of gender and body image in mass media forms such as newspaper and magazines. The scholar hypothesized that the rise of reality television shows, talk shows, and game shows featuring participation by normal people rater than celebrities would lead to democratization and broadened representation. The findings of the study indicated that both male and females experienced positive and negative references to body image. However, the results also indicated changes in visual portrayal and treatment of body size, weight, appearance, and conceptions attractiveness, which broadened to include ordinary people and reduce reference to ‘ideal’ body image, as well as reduced stereotypical and sexist tendencies. Ultimately, the two studies indicate that representation can be used in content analysis as a way of investigating how media such as television portray given societal groups or sections. Text Description The Big Bang Theory is a sitcom that runs on CBS, created by Chuck Lorre and Bill Prady and directed by Mark Cendrowski (CBS Interactive, 2014). The American sitcom is on its eighth season, having premiered on CBS on September 24, 2007. The show is scripted by the two creators who also serve as its executive producers, with Steven Molaro also taking part in the writing. The premise of the show is on geek life, culture, and the interaction of geeks with other people. The show is set in Pasadena, California, and centers on the lives of four friends working at Caltech. The four characters are physicists and roommates Sheldon Cooper and Leonard Hofstadter alongside Sheldon’s friends and coworkers, Howard Wolowitz, an aerospace engineer, and Raj Koothrappali, an astrophysicist. Significant comic effect arises from the interactions of the four characters with Penny, who offers a contrast from the geek culture, as well as Amy Farrah Fowler, a neuroscientist appearing as a guest character in season three and a main character added in later seasons as Sheldon’s love interest. Common themes revolve around geek culture aspects such as science, science fiction, comic books, and gaming juxtaposed against non-geek culture to establish patterns such as technological expertise, an educated life, social awkwardness, and romantic relationships (CBS Interactive, 2014). In terms of characters, Sheldon Cooper is a theoretical physicist with eidetic memory and expertise in string theory and quantum physics, besides being tactless socially and struggling with nuances and sarcasm. Sheldon lives with Leonard Hofstadter, an experimental physicist sharing the same nerd character with all the major male characters in the show. Hofstader dates Penny, a waitress and aspiring actor who provides a contrast from the other main characters in not being nerdy and having social awareness and common sense. The other two main characters are Howard Joel Wolowitz and Rajesh Koothrappali who work at Caltech as aerospace engineer and particle astrophysicist, respectively. Other important characters include Bernadette Rostenkowski-Wolowitz, a microbiologist and Howard’s love interest; Leslie Winkle, Leonard’s counterpart and Sheldon’s enemy; and Amy Farrah Fowler, a neurobiologist, Sheldon’s love interest, and Penny’s friend (CBS Interactive, 2014).