User talk:Admantine123/Article created

.

Work in progress
Gupta, vakataka and wardhanas

Various sources of information about Gupta dynasty and its contemporary dynasty exist. It includes royal prashsati, donative inscription, land grant inscription and various coins. Gupta coins were of immense importance to trace both the geology of the kings and information on various aspects of the empire. The gold coins of Gupta were called Dinars. Silver coins were also issued by the rulers like Chandragupta 2. Copper coins of Gupta are rare, also available are the coins of contemporary dynasty like kadambs, Ikshvaku, vishnukundins and Nagas. Sanskrit literature Political Condition
 * Other sources are seals and sealing found at Bhita and Nalanda.
 * Various Sanskrit literature which belongs to this period are Narad, Vishnu, Brihaspati and Katyayana smriti. Also kamandak's nitisara and fragments of Devichandraguptam, a drama written by Vishakhadutta are relevant for political history of Guptas. Work on medicine and astronomy and like those of Amarkosha and Kamasutra indicate knowledge of various fields popular during this period. There also exist account of travellers like Faxian , although it doesn't mention the name of Chandragupta 2 in whose reign Faxian came to India.
 * Architectural remain at the site of Ahichhatra and Bhita also provides important data.
 * Mighty kushana kings were reduced to the position of subordinates by the Sassanid rulers of Iran. A number of republican states like Madra, Yaudheya and Nagas existed and in western India a branch of Kshatrap rulers had established themselves in post Mauryan period.
 * Kshatrap rule came to an end after Gupta ruler Chandragupta 2 defeated them and annexed their empire.
 * After decline of satvahana in Deccan and south india new set of rulers like Ikshvaku and Kadambs came into existence and also emerged the pallavas who ruled from kanchi. Epigraphic evidence suggests that pallava ruler Vishnugop was reigning at kanchi when samudragupta attacked there.

Origin Kshatriya and Brahmin origin Samudragupta Expansion by Samudragupta other information from pryag Prashsati Coins of Samudragupta 8 type of coins has been associated with him which includes the Archer type, tiger Slayer type and the Ashwamedh and lyre player type. Some coins of the king also depicts goddess Arodokoso, the kushana deity of fertility. Chandragupta 2 Military campaign Coins
 * According to Panchobh copper plate inscription some king bearing the title Gupta claimed themselves to be vaishyas. According to RS Sharma, vaishyas who were traditionally associated with trade may have become rulers after resisting oppressive taxation.
 * This was suggested given their matrimonial alliance with the lichhivis who were Kshatriya. Similarly Brahmin origin theory was given by their matrimonial alliance with the vakataka dynasty. Prabhavati Gupta who was daughter of Chandragupta 2 was married to vakataka ruler rudrasena 2.
 * Gupta were possibly the feudatory of kushana in the Uttar Pradesh as they followed weight system of kushana gold coins and considering their access to fertile land of the madhyadsha and iron ore of Bihar as well as proximity to the silk route, it was possible for them to carve out an empire.
 * Guptas learned the use of saddle, buttoned coats, boots and trousers from kushana and all this gave them mobility and made them efficient cavalrymen.
 * Though Gupta rulers are are described as unrivalled chariot warrior, horse 🐎 form important component of their army and importance of horse in their army can be seen by horsemen type coin of Gupta rulers.
 * Chandragupta 1 was first independent ruler to use the title of Maharajdhiraj. He married the princess of lichhivi kumardevi and thus extended his domain to assume this title.
 * He succeeded Chandragupta 1. Alexander Cunningham found a sandstone inscription near varaha temple in Eran, in which Samudragupta is comparable to kubera and Yama in joy and wrath respectively. At Eran first depiction of sati is present. But the most important source of information about Samudragupta is the Prayag Prashsati composed by Harisena.
 * Samudragupta is also called Lichhivi Dauhitra or the grandson of the Lichhivi.
 * Controversies arises on the discovery of the coins of a king called Kacha which bears striking similarity to those issued by Samudragupta.
 * Vincent Smith calls him the Nepolean of India.
 * His campaign in Aryavart was of direct annexation which is described in the line 21 of Prayag Prashsati. This line described how he exterminated the rulers of this area.
 * In some other areas where kings obeyed his orders and came under his overlordship, he didn't annexed their kingdom. This include the area of kamrupa and Nepal.
 * His campaign in South India is mentioned in line 19 and 20. At first he captured many south Indian king and then released them. One example was Vishnugop of kanchi.
 * Some other rulers like those of srilanka and later kushana surrendered and offered their daughters in marriage.
 * Samudragupta is described as equal to Brihaspati in intellect and to Tumburu in music. He is called Dhrma Prachir Bandhu and upholder of Brahmin Dhrma. But he was tolerant of other religions as we know that he accepted the request of ruler of srilanka Meghvarman to construct a budhhist monastery at bodhgaya. This monastery was also mentioned by Xuanzang. His coin represent him playing veena.
 * The legend on coin of Samudragupta gives various information about him. As for example, he has been described as vyagra prakramah (brave as a 🐯), and Ashwamedh prakramah ( Powerful enough to host an Ashwamedh sacrifice).
 * He was son of Samudragupta and Dattadevi and as per literary source like Devichandraguptam and Banabhatta Harshcharita and also the 11th century Persian work called Majmat ul twarikh, Ramgupta ruled between Samudragupta and Chandragupta 2. But he was killed by Chandragupta 2 after he decided to surrender his wife to saka after losing to them.
 * Gupta inscription donot mention Ramgupta and also skandgupta as the royal genealogy covers rulers falling only in the direct line of succession.
 * Chandragupta 2 forged matrimonial alliance and married kubernaga of Naga family and also married his daughter to the vakataka dynasty ruler.
 * He defeated Shaka and brought end to Shaka Kshatrap rule in western India. During his time Gupta started minting silver coin. these silver coin were modelled on Shaka coin and just symbol of Shaka was replaced by the symbol of Gupta I.e Garuda.
 * He took the title vikramaditya which was first taken by king of Ujjain who founded lunar calendar Vikram samvat to mark his victory on Shaka.
 * Iron pillar inscription at Mehrauli in delhi is attributed to the Chandragupta 2. This pillar inscription mention his exploits and says that he crossed seven rivers of sindhu region and defeated valhikas, identified with bactria.
 * Some scholar think that hero of kalidas Raghuvansham is Chandragupta 2.
 * Brihatkathamanjari of Kashmiri writer kshamendra mentions him unburdening earth of the barbarian like Saka, Malechhas, Yavana and Hunas.
 * He introduced new type of coins like horsemen type and the lion Slayer type and was first Gupta king to issue silver coins.
 * Nine gems adorned his court, these were Kalidasa, Amarsingh, Shapanaka (astrologer), Dhanvantari, Vararuchi (linguist), Varahmihir, Ghatakpara (sculpturist), Shanku (Geography) and Vetalbhatta.

Kumargupt period of consolidation and administrative arrangements in Kumargupt reign. Skandgupta Budhagupta Gupta polity and administration Council of minister Justice System Army Local government Revenue administration Nature of political control of Gupta king Gupta: Society, caste and position of women South Indian text Acharakovai also gives glimpse of untouchability and manimekalai too. (Story of Aputtan, the son of Brahmin woman and shudra male) Position of women Economic condition, coinage, land grants, decline of urban centres and Indian feudalism Land ownership Royal ownership Private ownership Jamini and shabara were strong proponent of it. Various inscription shows king purchasing land for pious donation, so all land may not be own by the king. Epigraphic evidence of communal ownership are few and from early period. From 300 ce onwards, literary and epigraphic evidence argue for royal and private ownership.Ashraf pur copper plate inscription gives a glimpse on hierarchy of right on land. Gautam dharmsutra, manu and brahaspati Smriti mention various way of acquiring land and says that filed belong to him, whi first remove weed. Brihaspati Smiriti tells that land given to someone for more than 30 years can't be taken away. Condition of ordinary cultivators Land grants It was started by satvahana in Deccan and increase during Gupta period. The religious land grants were called Agrahara and Devagrahara. The later were land given to secular parties for the purpose of repair and worship of temple. Royal land charter as source of history Rural settlement in post Gupta period Closed economy Coinage under Gupta foreign influence on coins paucity of coin Indian feudalism in post Gupta period Features of Indian feudalism :- Rs Sharma points out that self sufficiency of the country's economy was an essential condition of feudalism. Political implications was that the bureaucracy lost relevance and army became a feudal army. Social hierarchy and social status cutting across caste system emerged as social implication of feudal system. Decline of feudalism Various theory on indian feudalism RS Sharma Criticism of Indian feudalism BD chattopadhyay Monetary anaemia theory Other factor behind monetary anaemia Hence there was regional exception but overall india fit into hypothesis of monetary anaemia. Hundika were used though.
 * His coins contain image of lord Kartikeya and the Bilsad inscription and Damodarpur copper plate inscription are related to him. He is also known as Shakraditya and Mahendraditya. He is credited for having defeated pushyamitra and the white huns.
 * A stone inscription at mandsor describe him reigning over a large area. He took title of Maharajdhiraj and worshipped war god Kartikeya. He defeated aulikara dynasty of central India and also the Traikutaka of western India. His coin describe him as rhinoceros Slayer and tiger Slayer, which is interpreted by scholar as his succesful campaign towards south of Narmada and in the kamrup kingdom. He issued largest variety of coin among Gupta kings and found Nalanda mahavihar.
 * Epigraphic evidence suggests that he ruled through his governers who were called Uparika. The Uparika ruled over bhukti or province. The district or vishaya were ruled by vishaypati. The mayor was called Nagar shreshthin and chief of artisan guild called pratham Kulik.
 * Bhitari pillar inscription suggests that his successor skandgupta restore falling prestige of Gupta which means, he must have suffered reverses during last year of his reign. There was a succession dispute between skandgupta and purugupta after his death.
 * He also fought pushyamitra and Hunas and assume the title of Kramaditya. The relationship between Gupta and Vakataka was in strain and when Malava, a part of Gupta Empire was threatened by the vakataka, the threat was checked by Skandgupta. Gold coin minted during his reign are less and also low in weight and he was last Gupta ruler to mint silver coins. He however couldn't create administrative machinery and sound economy.
 * He had close ties with rulers of kannauj and they together ruled out Huna from India.
 * King: Gupta king claimed divine status and assumed High sounding title like Parambhattaraka and Maharajdhiraj. But Bhitari pillar inscription suggests that though king was fountain of power he was expected to follow righteous path.
 * king was to lead army and support Brahmans and Shraman and venerate learned and religious.
 * The minister were known by various designation like Mantrin, Amatya and Sachiv. The offices were hereditary as Udaigiri inscription of Chandragupta 2 confirms of a person holding office of minister of war and peace by inheritance.
 * Amatya and Sachiv formed the highest rung of administration.
 * King was assisted by Mahadandanayak. In provinces Uparika and in district Vishaypati also had legal duties. There was a position called Vinaysahitisthapaka, about which there is mention on Vaishali Seal. This officer was concerned with the maintenance of social descipline.
 * Kumaramatya were also high officials who were equivalent in status to the Prince of royal blood. Spies were called Dutaka.
 * Gupta relied heavily on cavalrymen and archers. They relied on infantry archers compared to their opponent Scythian and Huna who were horse archers. There was an office called Sandhivigrahika and commander in chief of army was called Mahabaladhikrit. Dandapashik was district level police official and Ranabhandagarik was officer in charge of Store. The prominent members of town were Nagarshresthin, who was merchant and banker and Sarthvaha, who was leader of merchant caravan. Pratham kulik was chief artisan.
 * Sanchi inscription of Chandragupta 2 mentions of panch mandali, which was a panchayat type body. Damodarpur copper plate inscription mention Ashtakula Adhikarana, which was a board of 8 members.
 * Akshapataladhikrit was an officer whose duty was to maintain accounts and Pushtapala was record keeper. According to Narada Smiriti land revenue was 1/6th of produce. Various type of taxes included Bhaga, Shulka, Vishthi and Uparikara. The Uparikara was a tax on farmer without proprietary rights in land but some scholar also interpret it as a toll on interstate movement of cloth and oil. Hiranya was king's share in the agricultural produce, which was to be paid in cash. Udranga was tax from permanent peasants.
 * line 19-22 of Prayag Prashsati deals with expansion by Samudragupta. It is known that direct control of Guptas were mostly continued in North India. According to Prayag Prashsati Political control of Guptas on various vassals was exercised through imposition of certain obligation on everyone as for example parting with a portion of revenue or matrimonial alliance.
 * Practice of land grant was also symbol of royalty which helped Gupta Kings to extend agriculture. Gradually, these land grants became hereditary. Royal agents couldn't enter the granted land and this led to fragmentation of authority. Gupta rulers didn't require many officials like Mauryans as like the former they didn't regulated the whole economy on substantial scale.
 * Most of the legal text of the period were written taking Manu's dharmashastra as the basis. Some of them included Yajnavalakya smriti, Narada Smiriti and Brihaspati Smriti. Society was divided into four varnas. Brahmins legitimised Guptas and hence the later came to be the supporters of Brahmins and awarded them a lot of land grants, which came to be known as Brahmadeya and Agrahara.
 * Antyaja or untouchables were out of the social order. Mention of various castes by law book of the period is an important feature. These castes were emerged out of the varna Shankara and apadharma, the later refers to conduct followed during periods of distress.
 * Status of woman of higher varna was also low, but position of Shudra improved as they could perform some household rituals and listen to Ramayay Mahabharata and worship Krishna.
 * Shanti parba and Anushasan parba of Mahabharata calls for alliance of Brahmins and Kshatriya this signifies the challange from upward mobile Shudra and Vaishyas. The new category of vrata Kshatriya emerged due to inclusion of foreign tribes into indian society. Fahien has mentioned about untouchables.
 * Faxian talks about joint family and happy people.
 * Royal women were visible on coins and inscription, specially on king and queen type coin.Masoda plate of pravarsena 2 describe the grant of land by a queen. There was an increase in focus on stri dhana. Vatsayan refers to royal women trained in various arts. There was no custom of purdah. Dharmashastra says girls should be married before puberty. Sexual relationship with women of High varna and adultery is condemned but the sexual relationship with women of lower varna allowed.
 * Polygamy prevailed, Kamasutra talks about an ideal wife and Katyayana smriti also cherishes a devout wife.
 * There were two class of prostitute. The ganika were courtesan prostitute who was associated with wealth and splendour but the life of ordinary prostitute was miserable.
 * Narada Smiriti talks about shaving the head of women who committed adultery. Amarkosha mention about remarried widow but sati was a prevalent practice. Narada Smiriti mention 15 type of slaves. The Vishthi was considered as the source of revenue for the state and most inscriptional reference to it comes from M.P and Kathiawad region.Child born out of a slave women was also considered as slave.
 * There was great difference in the life of city dwellers and those living in villages. Dance performance was common in the homes of wealthy and Chaturanga or chess is said to be originated in this period. Drinking wine and chewing betel leaves was common.
 * Amarkosha which is dated to Gupta period contain variety of crop plants, fruits and vegetables. Crops like maize and vegetables like Tomato 🍅 and potato 🥔 were not known during Gupta period. The technique of grafting was mentioned in brihatsamhita.
 * Presence of Brahmins and artisan in rural set-up and change in technology led to Expansion of agriculture. Damodarpur, Paharpur and Baigram copper plate inscription refers to donee applying for the wasteland. Text of the time mention various types of waterworks.Narada Smiriti mention two type of dyke.
 * Junagadh inscription mention repair of sudarshan lake during reign of Skandgupta. Ghatiyantra and Araghatta were used for watering but they are known before the Gupta period.Vapi, Tagada and Dirghula were name given to the tanks. Eri varyams were committe in pallava territory to look after the tanks.
 * Importance of manure is mentioned in Harshcharita and it also mention different type of cultivation.
 * Vishnu smriti tells us about communal ownership of pastureland and Gautam smriti tells us that land was indivisible.
 * Manusmriti says that king was entitled to half share of produce as he is owner of all land and half share of ore dug out too. Katyayana smriti gives conflicting argument and says that people dwell on soil, so they are considered as real owner of it but at the same time also says that king owns it.
 * Amarkosha lists 12 type of land which include ushara (baren), urvara(fertile), maru(desert).
 * kshetra is used for field in inscription, khila for untilled land and vastu for habitat land. Nivartana, kulyavapa and dronvapa are unit of measurement of land.
 * Land tenure were also of various types as for example Akshay nivi refers to such land which was unalienable. In the tenure called Nivi Dharmayaksha, the donee was given full right to transfer and sale the land. No secular deed of sale is present because it must be mentioned on perishable materials but 11 inscription from eastern India record purchase of land for pious donation.
 * Damodarpur Paharpur copper plate inscription also gives insights into prices of land.
 * Due to land grants they were redui to very low position in society and serfdom prevailed. Krishibala and Karshaka are terms used for ordinary cultivators. According to Kamasutra, the domestic female slaves working on the field of rgejr master suffer exploitation.
 * Secular grants were given to officers which can be known from officer having designation such as bhagika and bhogpalika.Gramika, kutumb and mahattar were village landlord. The inhabitants of donated lands were tied to if and were to pay various kind of services to beneficiary.
 * The attachment of peasants, artisan and merchant to their respective settlement created a closed economy. Forced labour was referred to in Skandpurana tells us about its entrenched practice in 5th CE. Mahabharata refer repeatedly of king giving land to Brahmins in Dandharma parva. The dana were of three types viz hiranya, Godan and prithibi dan.
 * Pali canon also refers to bimbisara and Prasenjit of giving land to Brahmins.
 * Nanaghat and Nasik inscription has earliest inscription of royal land grants, similarly Bhitari pillar inscription of Skandgupta record gift of village in favour of Vishnu temple. In Karnataka the land grant began in 2nd Century CE. The 3rd and 4th century CE Mayidavole plate record such grants. There is evidence of land grant by private individuals in Dhanaidaha copper plate.
 * It gives information on ancestry of donar and donee, religious affiliation and achievements. It also tells about taxes, location of land, occasion for grant, purpose of grant.
 * Grama was name given to village, the palli was tribal village and pataka was part of village whereas the ghosa was settlement of herdsman. Village could be divided on the basis of Sanskritic and non Sanskritic village. The vastu was habitat land in villages. While Gochara was pastureland, kshetra stand for cultivated land.
 * Agrahara village though donated to Brahmins had non Brahman population as well but proprietary rights was with Brahmins.Such kind of village in South India was called Mangalam.
 * Dharmashastra prohibited the movement of Brahmins to keep vedic and domestic fire 🔥 burning. Sea voyages were also prohibited and peasants and artisan were also tied to land this lead to emergence of a closed economy.
 * Gupta monarch were famous for their gold coins. Silver coins were also issued but copper and bronze are rare. Artists depicted ruler in various poses.Coin carries legend such as tiger slayer, and were of the Ashwamedh type, archer type and horseman type. These gives information about ruler's prowess. The Coins also gives Information about economy. As for example 90% pure gold coin of Chandragupta 1 was replaced by lower purity coin in later period. It also gives information on polity example legend like Ashwamedh prakramah and vyagra prakramah represent achievements of rulers. It gives information about religious affiliation of the ruler as various goddess like Laxmi, Durga are depicted on it and also goddess Arodokoso.The lyre player type coin of Samudragupta represent rulers preference for art and culture.
 * Earlier Gupta coin followed the weight standard of Kushana coin i.e of 8 gram and also represent Kushana deity. The name dinar of Gupta coin has been derived from Dinarius Aurios. Gupta king are depicted in kushana dress style of long overcoat and trousers. Similarly, Western Kshatrap silver coin inspired Gupta silver coins.The three arched hill was replaced by mythical eagle 🦅 Garuda.
 * Gold coin used by Gupta were hardly used for day to day commerce. Weight and purity reduced with time and after rise of pala and rashtrakuta, even issuance of coin became low.Churni and Cowries started to be used in Bengal as attested by Fahien. Gupta period was basically based on self sufficient unit of production in villages and towns.
 * Feudalism refers to practice of establishment of superior rights over the land.
 * Superior rights of the feudal lords
 * Rise of jayaskandhavars, victory army camps
 * Feudal titles like Thakur
 * Sub infeudation
 * Vishthi i.e forced labour which was a prerogative of the state and it was transferred to beneficiary of the land grants.
 * Text like Gramdharam, Gramchara points towards phenomenon of feudal localism. Decline of trade and commerce lead to decline of status of vaishyas.The description of Albiruni says that there was decline in status of Vaishya and they became similiar to shudra. The feudalism in india also gave to rise of new caste like kayastha. The system of land grants started in 100 bc under the satvahana in Maharashtra which became a tradition in Gupta period.
 * Political centralisation due to foundation of Delhi sultanate in which iqta system was prevalent.Muhammad Habib calls it urban revolution.
 * Growth of cash economy : In 900-1300 Ad the rise of traders like Nikshepa Vanika is seen also the trade like lekhapadhati shows growth in the moneylenders. Various trader group like Oswal, palliwal, Aggarwal marwari came to be named after various reasons from which they came. Nagram emerged as the regional market and centre of exchange in the south india and guilds like Ayyavole and Manigraman became famous.
 * Authors like RS Sharma and DN jha are supporters of Indian feudalism. DD koshambi says that there was feudal formation in india in two-stage. One was feudalism from above and another was feudalism from below. In feudalism from above there was direct relationship between overlord and vassal without presence of an intermediary class. In feudalism from below there was rise of rural landowners as powerful intermediary between peasants and rulers.
 * RS Sharma and DN jha support feudalism from above. The focus on bhakti strengthen the idea of loyalty and subjection to God and hence strengthen the concept of feudalism.
 * Political essence of feudalism lays in administrative organization of Kingdom based on land, Sharma first propose decline of foreign trade as a cause of feudalism and in his theory of urban decay in 1920, and also in kali age crisis theory he explained this trend. According to kali age crisis theory to overcome the rise of shudra rulers started granting land to the Brahman, so that the later can bring social order in the society.
 * DC sirkar, Harbans mukhia and BD chattopadhyay are against the concept of Indian feudalism. In 1979, Harbans mukhia published a paper called, was there a feudalism in india. He said that no manorial system like Europe exists in india and unlike Europe the peasants owned land in india. Indian soil was fertile and the favourable climate helped farmers to grow more. In Europe tools and land was given by the overlord to the peasants.
 * BD chattopadhyay argues that 4-5th century was of increase in the metallic money and artisan activities and town, so suddenly after this, there can't be opposite situation. The land grants according to him was rulers bid to consolidate their Power.
 * He says on urban decay that there was fall of some towns at the other hand there was rise of others. On trade decline he says that the Indian Ocean trade was divided into smaller segment and just nature of the trade changed, not the declined. On coinage he says that there was decline in aesthetic quality of the coin and not volume of coin.
 * On kali age Crisis, Burton Stein sought Brahman-peasant alliance in some regions of Tamil Nadu.Subrayalu says that not more than 20% of land grant was given to Brahmans at any point of time in history.
 * In 750-1200. It was suggested by DD koshambi but brought to the focus by RS Sharma. It is said that in the said period of time, Pratihar issued some of silver coin but they are of doubtful standard. Kashmiri copper coins are found but they are of poor quality and Pandya horse 🐎 trade also took place by barter. In orrisa the said period has complete absence of coins.
 * Decline of indo Roman trade in 4th century.
 * Use of used bricks in urban construction like vaishali. Copper plate of pala and sena has only few references to nagar and pura.Counter
 * Pala and Sena didn't mint coin but evidence of long series of Harikeka silver coin and use of Cowries and churni as medium of exchange was prevalent. Text like Prabandhchintamani, Divyapariksha uses words like bhagaka, rupaka, dinar which represent coins.Siyadoni inscription refers to variety of coin.

Educational development during Gupta period Brahmanical system of education Budhhist system of education Jaina System of education Technical education development of education Gupta period post Gupta period Important center of education during Gupta period
 * The purpose of education in ancient India was the inner growth and self satisfaction of someone. The education were of various types.
 * Education was a part of Ashram called Brahmadeya and began with upnayan sanskar. Medium of instruction was Sanskrit and shudra and women were not allowed to be educated.Tattriya upnishad says self education was the proper method of attaining the be highest knowledge.
 * Seat of monastic learning in Buddhism was called Pirivenas. Nalanda, Vikramshila and Odantpuri were famous centre of budhhist learning. It includes the study of Tripitaka and also included the learning of logic, grammar, and science. Nind were also educated. Earlier pali was language of instruction and later under Mahayana the Sanskrit became the language of instruction.
 * Jaina monastery were called basadi . These were centre of education. Jain studies included Agam as central part and Prakrit was medium of instruction.
 * Guild during those period have the provision of providing the technical education in craft and skill. These guild also gave patronage to astronomy as studying the position of stars help them in ocean navigation. Apbhramsa was jain language for composition of poetry in the region of Rajasthan and Gujarat.
 * In vedic age education was imparted orally
 * In post Vedic, Mauryan and post Maurya period, guild became the centre of education due to growth of urban centres and trade. Study of new formulation in building and architecture grew and also the knowledge of medicine and surgery. Shushuruta and Charak were famous for surgery and medicine.
 * Budhhist monastery admitted students for the period of 10 years. They had library. These monastery were made and supported by the grants from the king and the rich mercentile class. The books in jaina and Buddhist monastery were written on palm leaves. Mathas were parallel coaching of Brahmans.
 * Higher education were given in the taxila, Ujjain, Gaya and Nalanda. Ghatika or college attached to the temple emerged as new centre of education. The entry to ghatika was provided only to Dvija.
 * Taxila : Hieun Tsang recognise it as the important centre of medicine. The famous personalities associated with it are Jivaka, Kautilya and Chandragupta Maurya.
 * Odantpuri: It was established by Gopal (oyaa). It is located near Bihar Sharif in Nalanda district of Bihar. Perished at the hands of Muslim Invaders.
 * Jahaddala (Arjun Rampal Jug) : Rampal was it's founder. It was a centre of Tantrik budhhism. It followed the curriculum of Nalanda. Here many books were translated into Tibetan.
 * Sompura: It was established by dharmpal in Bangladesh. King Devpal erected Dharmpal vihar at sompura.
 * Salotgi: It was situated in Karnataka and it had 27 hostels erected by minister of king krishna 3.
 * Ennayiram: It was situated in Tamilnadu and it was a boarding school. Heba Aisha (talk) 17:16, 21 October 2021 (UTC)