User talk:Artfuldodger08/sandbox/Pursuit predation

Thinking about starting up this article, and put together a starting list of sources with some justifications to get things started. Let me know if there's any suggestions or additions you have for this: this is my first attempt at doing a Wikipedia article, so I'm incredibly open to suggestions.

Early Bibliography for Pursuit Predation:

1. http://getitatduke.library.duke.edu/?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_enc=info%3Aofi%2Fenc%3AUTF-8&rfr_id=info:sid/summon.serialssolutions.com&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:journal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Aerial+pursuit+and+predation+of+European+goldfinch+%28Carduelis+carduelis%29+by+Australian+magpie+%28Gymnorhina+tibicen%29&rft.jtitle=Notornis&rft.au=Crossland%2C+Andrew+C&rft.date=2008-12-01&rft.issn=0029-4470&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=4&rft.spage=212&rft.epage=213&rft.externalDBID=n%2Fa&rft.externalDocID=355356682

Crossland, Andrew. 2008. “Aerial pursuit and predation of European goldfinch (Carduelis carduelis) by Australian magpie (Gymnorhina tibicen)” Basically a short summary of a scientist’s observation of an Australian magpie utilizing pursuit predation to capture a finch. Could be good for the “examples” section

2.Iles et al. 2013. “Terrestrial predation by polar bears: not just a wild goose chase.” http://search.proquest.com/docview/1418096725?pq-origsite=summon&http://www.nclive.org/cgi-bin/nclsm?rsrc=309

This one is interesting as it challenges conventional beliefs of polar bear predation behavior as following the optimal foraging model. The authors’ cite examples of the bears pursuing geese and other birds in high-speed, energy inefficient chases. This could be a good one for a section about how pursuit predation does not have to be the exclusive mode of predation for animals (because it is energetically inefficient) but rather a compliment to more traditional foraging behavior

3.  http://download.springer.com/static/pdf/78/art%253A10.1007%252FBF01041590.pdf?originUrl=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1007%2FBF01041590&token2=exp=1443362968~acl=%2Fstatic%2Fpdf%2F78%2Fart%25253A10.1007%25252FBF01041590.pdf%3ForiginUrl%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Flink.springer.com%252Farticle%252F10.1007%252FBF01041590*~hmac=5bd094a00d48921c2487f484d06ec538e0f8ea7f54109dda9bd031b793c2c7cd

Janis, Journal of Mammalian Evolution, VoL 1, No. 2, 1993. This paper is about the evolution of pursuit predation type organisms (specifically, they look at evolutionary precursors to wolves) and how this feeding type probably occurred later than ungulate leg elongation. While the researchers argue that Ungulates evolved legs similar to modern taxa in the Middle Tertiary, while the earliest possible legs in predators for pursuit were later, around 20 million years or so. I thought this paper was interesting, as it suggested an evolutionary look at the predation mode, and could be useful in an origins section on the behavior.

4) http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304380004006192 Ecological Modelling, Volume 185, Issues 2–4, 10 July 2005, Pages 245–254 This paper is sort of cool, and presents a very different idea on how pursuit predation might be important. Essentially, it’s arguing that pursuit predation is helpful to spatial patterns and synchrony in populations, as the predators continually move from high density to low density areas (in both prey and predator numbers). In doing so, the predators don’t actively over decrease a population by predation in one area, but spread their impact. I thought this paper could be useful in talking about why pursuit predation is important ecologically; it might help establish a good background for why this article is needed.

5) Combes, S. A., M. K. Salcedo, M. M. Pandit, and J. M. Iwasaki. "Capture Success and Efficiency of Dragonflies Pursuing Different Types of Prey." Integrative and Comparative Biology 53.5 (2013): 787-98. Web. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org.proxy.lib.duke.edu/content/53/5/787.short This paper is basically, an optimal predator study. Rather than focus on the mechanics of the pursuit, the study outlines the benefits and constraints the dragonflies considers in determining what to prey upon. I think it can be useful as an additional portion of the ‘examples’ section

6) Jablonski, P. G. "Sensory Exploitation of Prey: Manipulation of the Initial Direction of Prey Escapes by a Conspicuous 'rare Enemy'" Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 268.1471 (2001): 1017-022. Web. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1088703/ This study is really interesting, because it focuses on how this species of bird exploits the antipredatory instincts of its prey in order deceive it’s prey into flying into the line of sight best for capture. I think the addition of a study that shows the influence of predators on their prey would be quite beneficial. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.proxy.lib.duke.edu/doi/10.1002/ajp.20800/pdf Lab study on capuchin monkeys that display greater predatory skills for males rather than females and a relation between predatory behavior and corpus callosum size
 * Additional interesting study: Hellner-Burris, Kaitlyn, Courtney A. Sobieski, Valerie R. Gilbert, and Kimberley A. Phillips. "Prey Capture Efficiency in Brown Capuchin Monkeys ( Cebus Apella ) Is Influenced by Sex and Corpus Callosum Morphology." American Journal of Primatology Am. J. Primatol. (2010): n. pag. Web.

7. Landeau, Laurie, and John Terborgh. “Oddity And the ‘Confusion Effect’ in Predation.”Animal Behaviour 34.5 (1986): 1372–1380. Web. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347286802081 This study has to do with the interaction between pursuit predators and their prey, specifically prey that travels in groups. The main focus is on largemouth bass and their prey, silvery minnows. This details the fact that the bass is extremely effective at capturing individual prey, but has an increasingly difficult time when more minnows are added and they school together. This is a challenge faced by a wide variety of pursuit predators (lions, dolphins, etc). However there is usually heterogeneity within herding animals, and predators are usually successful in capturing prey that stands out. This heterogeneity is explored across several species.

8. Sugimoto, Chikatoshi, and Yuzuru Ikeda. “Ontogeny Of Schooling Behavior in the Oval Squid Sepioteuthis Lessoniana.” Fish Sci Fisheries Science 78.2 (2012): 287–294. Web. http://www.biolbull.org/content/225/1/50.full.pdf+html This study details the development of two related pursuit predators: the squid and the cuttlefish. Because pursuit predation often requires specific adaptations and structures, it is not always possible across the timeline of development. While the cuttlefish uses the same technique from hatching through adulthood, the squid lacks full functionality of its two ensnaring tentacles and so must use its arms to catch prey until they develop fully. This study investigates the differences between the development of hunting techniques in these two organisms.

Artfuldodger08 (talk) 15:59, 1 October 2015 (UTC)

Potential Outline for Article: Outline

Pursuit Predation is a form of Predation marked by a chase from predators seeking prey. The chase can be initiated either by predators or by prey, alerted by a predators presence, that attempt to flee before predators give chase. The chase ends with either the predator's capture and consumption of the prey, effectively diminishing the prey's fitness, or with the prey escaping the predators hunt, thus maintaining the prey's fitness, but leaving both prey and predator at metabolic losses. Pursuit is typically observed in carnivorous organisms, with animals being the most transparent examples of pursuit predators.

I.                   Strategy – in depth analysis of predation: beginning, during, and afterwards, important to make distinctions from not only ambush, but other types if necessary. There is still uncertainty as whether predators behave with a general tactic or strategy while preying. Certain, prior to a pursuit, predators will scout potential prey, assessing. During, predators may either exhaust their energy rapidly or pace themselves in seeing that a long pursuit will ensue. . Differing environments and the differing ranges of prey and predators, breed multitudes of alternative predator behaviors for species, given particular circumstances. How the events happen, what the purpose is. Potentially cite Jablonski or other authors that show how animals arrange in preparation for a pursuit

a.      Benefits (link to Optimal foraging): Why would we do this foraging, it’s energetically unfavorable, but must have distinct benefits in hunting. Draw link to evolutionary basis.

b.     Drawbacks (link to ESS): Focus on energetic cost. Make contrast again to ambush: why would you not want to do pursuit. Suggest using the polar bear article here: pursuit may not be only form in each organism that uses it.

'''II. Evolutionary Basis of the Behavior a.      Evolution as a countermeasure'''

Current theory on the evolution of pursuit predation suggests that the behavior is actually an evolutionary countermeasure to prey adaptation. Prey animals vary in their likelihood to avoid predation, and it is predation failure that drives evolution of both prey and predator. Predation failure rates vary wildly across the animal kingdom; raptorial birds can fail anywhere from 20% to 80% of the time in predation, while predatory mammals usually fail more than half the time. Prey adaptation drives these low rates in three phases: the detection phase, the pursuit phase, and the resistance phase. The pursuit phase drove the evolution of distinct behaviors for pursuit predation. As selective pressure on prey is higher than on predators adaptation usually occurs in prey long before the reciprocal adaptations in predators. Evidence in the fossil record supports this, with no evidence of modern pursuit predators until the late Tertiary. Certain adaptations, like long limbs in ungulates, that were thought to be adaptive for speed against predatory behavior have been found to predate predatory animals by over 20 million years. Because of this, modern pursuit predation is an adaptation that may have evolved separately and much later as a need for more energy in colder and more arid climates. Longer limbs in predators, the key morphological adaptation required for lengthy pursuit of prey, is tied in the fossil record to the late Tertiary. It is now believed that modern pursuit predators like the wolf and lion evolved this behavior around this time period as a response to ungulates increasing feeding range. As ungulate prey moved into a wider feeding range to discover food in response to changing climate, predators evolved the longer limbs and behavior necessary to pursue prey across larger ranges. In this respect, pursuit predation is not co-evolutionary with prey adaptation, but a direct response to prey. Prey adaptation to climate is the key formative reason for evolving the behavior and morphological necessities of pursuit predation.

B) Evolution from an Ecological Basis

Pursuit predation revolves around a distinct movement interaction between predator and prey; as prey move to find new foraging areas, predators should move with them. Predators congregate in areas of high prey density, and prey should then avoid these areas in turn. Because of these interactions, Spatial patterns of predators and prey are important in preserving population size. Prey attempts to avoid predation and find food are coupled with predator attempts to find food and compete with other predators. These interactions act to preserve populations. Models of spatial patterns and synchrony of predator-prey relationships can be used as support for the evolution of pursuit predation as one mechanism to preserve these population mechanics. By pursuing prey over long distances, predators actually improve longterm survival of both their own population and prey population through population synchrony. Pursuit predation acts to even out population fluctuations by moving predatory animals from areas of high predator density to low predator density, and low prey density to high prey density. This keeps migratory populations in synchrony, which increases metapopulation persistence. Pursuit predation’s effect on population persistence is more marked over larger travel ranges. Predator and prey levels are usually more synchronous in predation over larger ranges, as population densities have more ability to even out. Pursuit predation can then be supported as an adaptive mechanism for not just individual feeding success but also metapopulation persistence.

b. Evolution of pursuit predation as a facultative/adaptive behavior in certain scenarios like when opportunistic foraging is unlikely to work due to low prey volume (example: polar bears (Iles et al., 2013)).

III. Behavioral Examples in vertebrates

Categorize by: b.     Group pursuit: Lion article, pack hunting makes animals more effective in group pursuit. Can create a team based movement that makes fleeing more difficult.

c.      Individual pursuit: Single predator examples (example of Australian Magpie (Crossland 2008)).

d.     By animal: vertebrate animals that partake in the behavior, why. IV. In invertebrates (if applicable) ideas similar to above

a.      Group pursuit: Matabele ants raiding termite mounds

b.     Individual Cephalopods (specifically squid and cuttlefish) Jumping spiders (Freed article) Dragonflies are skilled aerial pursuer; they have a 97% success prey capture rate. This success rate is a consequence of the "decision-making" of which prey to pursue based on initial conditions. Observations of several species of perching dragonflies show more pursuit initiations at larger starting distances for larger size prey species than for much smaller prey. Further evidence points to a potential foraging strategy of dragonflies choosing to pursue larger prey at any given opportunity, due to more substantial metabolic rewards. This is in spite of the fact that larger prey typically stipulate faster prey and less successful pursuits. Dragonflies high success prey capture rate may also be due to their "interception" foraging method, unlike the tracking foraging methods, in which predators focus on closing in on the current position of their prey. Instead the interception method has the dragonfly seeking the position directly ahead of their prey as a way of surmising a prey's future location. There are no noticeable distinctions in prey capture efficiency by male and female dragonflies. Further, percher dragonflies are are more likely to engage in pursuit when prey come within a subtend angle of around 1-2 degrees. Angles greater than this are outside of a dragonflies visual range. c.      By animal

===Antipredatory Adaptation to Pursuit predation=== What mechanisms have arisen, in response to what types of specific behavior. homogeneity in herding animals - individuals who stand out are more likely to be captured

b. heterogeneity in herding animals - a “sacrificial” individual who stands out reduces its own fitness but increases the fitness of others in the herd (largemouth bass article)

The Evolutionary Arms Race as an enhancer of the fitness of pursuit predators is observed in flush pursuers, such as the painted redstart (Myioborus pictus). When flies, prey for redstarts, are alerted of the presence of predators, they respond by fleeing. Redstarts take advantage of this antipredator response by spreading and orienting their easily noticeable wings and tails. This triggers the flies to flee in a path that intersects with the redstart's central field of vision, significantly increasing the chances of fly capture. According to the literature, it is possible that redstarts exploit two aspects of the visual sensitivity of prey: sensitivity to the location of the stimulus in the prey's visual field and sensitivity to the direction of stimulus environment. The effectiveness of this pursuit can also be explained by "rare enemy effect", an evolutionary consequence of multi-species predator-prey interactions. In such interactions, behaviors that help prey avoid more common predators will be selected for more heavily than behaviors that allow prey to avoid rarer predators.