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Philophthalmus gralli
Philophthalmus gralli (P. gralli) was found in the conjunctival sacs of birds causing congestion and erosion of the conjunctiva. It is also called oriental avian eye fluke. The oriental eye fluke was described to parasite the conjunctiva sac of various galliforms and anseriforms (Nollen and Murray 1978). Also this fluke was found in ostriches, causing conjunctivitis. Greve and Harrison (1980) described the first case of philophthalmiasis in captive reared ostriches in the United States. Mukaratirwa et al. (2005) reported a field outbreak of P. gralli in commercially reared ostriches in Zimbabwe, where 17 affected birds presented swollen eyes, severe conjunctivitis and constant lacrimation accompanied by a purulent exudates. In Brazil this parasitism was reported in native anseriforms species (Muniz-Pereira and Amato 1993).

Trematode species in the Family Philophthalmidae parasitize the eyes of birds. Human cases of philophthalmosis have been previously reported in Europe, Asia, and America (i.e., Yugoslavia, Sri Lanka, Japan, Israel, Mexico, and the United States). The worm was reported as Philophthalmus lacrimosus, Philophthalmus palpebrarum, or an uncertained species.

LIFE CYCLE

Fully-embryonated eggs are shed into the water from the definitive host’s eyes. Miracidia hatch almost immediately in water and penetrate the snail intermediate host. Several snail genera may serve as intermediate hosts, including Thiara spp. and Melanoides spp. Inside the snail host, the miracidia (which contain a pre-formed redia) undergo a series of stages and become cercariae. Cercariae are released from the snail and encyst on aquatic vegetation or other solid objects in the water. The definitive host, which is usually an aquatic bird, becomes infected upon ingestion of metacercariae. Metacercariae excyst in the mouth and migrate to the eye where the adults reside. Humans rarely serve as incidental hosts, but may do so when they ingest metacercariae on aquatic vegetation.

The life cycle requires only two hosts. The adult lives in the eyes of bird definitive host and produces eggs containing eye-spotted miracidia that hatch immediately when they reach water. Miracidia infect snails first intermediate host and develop to redia and cercariae. The metacercariae encyst freely and openly, including on surfaces of food for birds. Successful direct infection of the definitive host of both cercariae and metacercariae can take place by entering the eye or by oral intake.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

1.	A. Fred West, Initials. (1961). Studies on the biology of Philophthalmus gralli. American Midland Naturalist, 66(2), 363-383.

2.	LastLori R. Tolley-Jordan and J. Murry Owen, Initials. (2009). Ocurrence of Philophthalmus gralli (trematoda:. Trop Anim Health Prod, 41, 1241-1242.

3.	Marcos T. Díaz1, Luz E. Hernández2 and Abul K. Bashirullah3, Initials. (2002). Experimental life cycle of Philophthalmus gralli. Rev. Biol. Trop, 50(2), 629-641.

4.	Naim S. Ismaila1 and Issam M. Issaa1, Initials. (1987). Development, growth and migration of Philophthalmus gralli (trematoda) from jordan in the eyes of chicks. Journal of Helminthology, 61(02), 163-168.

5.	Paul M. Nollen, Initials. (1983). Rhe effects of crowding on adults of Philophthalmus gralli (trematoda) grown in chickens. The Journal of Parasitology, 69(1), 198-199.

Philophthalmus gralli Philophthalmus gralli (P. gralli) was found in the conjunctival sacs of birds causing congestion and erosion of the conjunctiva. It is also called oriental avian eye fluke. The oriental eye fluke was described to parasite the conjunctiva sac of various galliforms and anseriforms (Nollen and Murray 1978). Also this fluke was found in ostriches, causing conjunctivitis. Greve and Harrison (1980) described the first case of philophthalmiasis in captive reared ostriches in the United States. Mukaratirwa et al. (2005) reported a field outbreak of P. gralli in commercially reared ostriches in Zimbabwe, where 17 affected birds presented swollen eyes, severe conjunctivitis and constant lacrimation accompanied by a purulent exudates. In Brazil this parasitism was reported in native anseriforms species (Muniz-Pereira and Amato 1993).

Trematode species in the Family Philophthalmidae parasitize the eyes of birds. Human cases of philophthalmosis have been previously reported in Europe, Asia, and America (i.e., Yugoslavia, Sri Lanka, Japan, Israel, Mexico, and the United States). The worm was reported as Philophthalmus lacrimosus, Philophthalmus palpebrarum, or an uncertained species.

LIFE CYCLE

Fully-embryonated eggs are shed into the water from the definitive host’s eyes. Miracidia hatch almost immediately in water and penetrate the snail intermediate host. Several snail genera may serve as intermediate hosts, including Thiara spp. and Melanoides spp. Inside the snail host, the miracidia (which contain a pre-formed redia) undergo a series of stages and become cercariae. Cercariae are released from the snail and encyst on aquatic vegetation or other solid objects in the water. The definitive host, which is usually an aquatic bird, becomes infected upon ingestion of metacercariae. Metacercariae excyst in the mouth and migrate to the eye where the adults reside. Humans rarely serve as incidental hosts, but may do so when they ingest metacercariae on aquatic vegetation.

The life cycle requires only two hosts. The adult lives in the eyes of bird definitive host and produces eggs containing eye-spotted miracidia that hatch immediately when they reach water. Miracidia infect snails first intermediate host and develop to redia and cercariae. The metacercariae encyst freely and openly, including on surfaces of food for birds. Successful direct infection of the definitive host of both cercariae and metacercariae can take place by entering the eye or by oral intake.

Philophthalmus gralli: PARASITE SPECIES SUMMARY PAGE Taxonomic Classification Animalia / Platyhelminthes / Trematoda / Echinostomida / Philophalmidae / Philophalmus / Species: (Classification of invertebrate species is an evolving discipline. The information in Wildpro has been carefully referenced to the source material, as far as possible. Readers requiring further clarification should consult the source materials and more recent publications. Classification information in Wildpro will be altered when clear and scientifically endorsed new information regarding taxonomic divisions becomes available to us. This section is currently predominantly used in Wildpro to link different data types and demonstrate inter-relationships. It does not contain detailed information on the invertebrate organism itself.) Alternative Names Philopthalmus anatinus, Philopthalmus nyrocae Description Fluke. Systems affected Eye - conjunctival sac. Life Cycle Eggs escape from eye and mouth or nostrils of final host, hatch immediately after contact with water; cercariae develop in fresh-water immediately after contact with fresh-water prosobranch snail in 95 days after infection, encyst on surfaces shortly after emergence; metacercariae ingested by final host, make way to conjunctival sac, mature in 24-29 days after ingestion. Geographic distribution Europe (USSR - Dneiper River), Asia (Indo-China, Taiwan), Oceania (USA - Hawii). Associated Waterfowl Diseases Ocular Fluke Infection (Philophthalmus gralli infection, Oriental eyefluke infection, Ocular trematode infection) Waterfowl Disease Summary Ocular infection due to a trematode (fluke).

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

1. A. Fred West, Initials. (1961). Studies on the biology of Philophthalmus gralli. American Midland Naturalist, 66(2), 363-383.

2. LastLori R. Tolley-Jordan and J. Murry Owen, Initials. (2009). Ocurrence of Philophthalmus gralli (trematoda:. Trop Anim Health Prod, 41, 1241-1242.

3. Marcos T. Díaz1, Luz E. Hernández2 and Abul K. Bashirullah3, Initials. (2002). Experimental life cycle of Philophthalmus gralli. Rev. Biol. Trop, 50(2), 629-641.

4. Naim S. Ismaila1 and Issam M. Issaa1, Initials. (1987). Development, growth and migration of Philophthalmus gralli (trematoda) from jordan in the eyes of chicks. Journal of Helminthology, 61(02), 163-168.

5. Paul M. Nollen, Initials. (1983). Rhe effects of crowding on adults of Philophthalmus gralli (trematoda) grown in chickens. The Journal of Parasitology, 69(1), 198-199.