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Planet From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Planets) This article is about the astronomical object. For other uses, see Planet (disambiguation). MercuryVenus EarthMars JupiterSaturn UranusNeptune The eight planets of the Solar System The terrestrial planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars The giant planets Jupiter and Saturn (gas giants) Uranus and Neptune (ice giants) Shown in order from the Sun and in true color. Sizes are not to scale.

A planet (from Ancient Greek ἀστήρ πλανήτης (astēr planētēs), or πλάνης ἀστήρ (plánēs astēr), meaning "wandering star")[1] is an astronomical object orbiting a star, brown dwarf, or stellar remnant that

is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity, is not massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion, and has cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals.[a][2][3] The term planet is ancient, with ties to history, science, mythology, and religion. Several planets in the Solar System can be seen with the naked eye. These were regarded by many early cultures as divine, or as emissaries of deities. As scientific knowledge advanced, human perception of the planets changed, incorporating a number of disparate objects. In 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) officially adopted a resolution defining planets within the Solar System. This definition is controversial because it excludes many objects of planetary mass based on where or what they orbit. Although eight of the planetary bodies discovered before 1950 remain "planets" under the modern definition, some celestial bodies, such as Ceres, Pallas, Juno, Vesta (each an object in the solar asteroid belt), and Pluto (the first trans-Neptunian object discovered), that were once considered planets by the scientific community are no longer viewed as such.

The planets were thought by Ptolemy to orbit Earth in deferent and epicycle motions. Although the idea that the planets orbited the Sun had been suggested many times, it was not until the 17th century that this view was supported by evidence from the first telescopic astronomical observations, performed by Galileo Galilei. By careful analysis of the observation data, Johannes Kepler found the planets' orbits were not circular but elliptical. As observational tools improved, astronomers saw that, like Earth, the planets rotated around tilted axes, and some shared such features as ice caps and seasons. Since the dawn of the Space Age, close observation by space probes has found that Earth and the other planets share characteristics such as volcanism, hurricanes, tectonics, and even hydrology.

Planets are generally divided into two main types: large low-density giant planets, and smaller rocky terrestrials. Under IAU definitions, there are eight planets in the Solar System. In order of increasing distance from the Sun, they are the four terrestrials, Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars, then the four giant planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Six of the planets are orbited by one or more natural satellites.

More than a thousand planets around other stars ("extrasolar planets" or "exoplanets") have been discovered in the Milky Way: as of 12 September 2015, 1956 known extrasolar planets in 1239 planetary systems (including 488 multiple planetary systems), ranging in size from just above the size of the Moon to gas giants about twice as large as Jupiter.[4] On December 20, 2011, the Kepler Space Telescope team reported the discovery of the first Earth-sized extrasolar planets, Kepler-20e[5] and Kepler-20f,[6] orbiting a Sun-like star, Kepler-20.[7][8][9] A 2012 study, analyzing gravitational microlensing data, estimates an average of at least 1.6 bound planets for every star in the Milky Way.[10] Around one in five Sun-like[b] stars is thought to have an Earth-sized[c] planet in its habitable[d] zone.

Contents [hide] 1 History 1.1 Babylon 1.2 Greco-Roman astronomy 1.3 India 1.4 Medieval Muslim astronomy 1.5 European Renaissance 1.6 19th century 1.7 20th century 1.8 21st century 1.8.1 Extrasolar planet definition 1.8.2 2006 definition 1.9 Objects formerly considered planets 2 Mythology and naming 3 Formation 4 Solar System 4.1 Planetary attributes 5 Exoplanets 6 Planetary-mass objects 6.1 Rogue planets 6.2 Sub-brown dwarfs 6.3 Former stars 6.4 Satellite planets and belt planets 6.5 Captured planets 7 Attributes 7.1 Dynamic characteristics 7.1.1 Orbit 7.1.2 Axial tilt 7.1.3 Rotation 7.1.4 Orbital clearing 7.2 Physical characteristics 7.2.1 Mass 7.2.2 Internal differentiation 7.2.3 Atmosphere 7.2.4 Magnetosphere 7.3 Secondary characteristics 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 External links History[edit source | edit] Further information: History of astronomy and Definition of planet See also: Timeline of Solar System astronomy

Printed rendition of a geocentric cosmological model from Cosmographia, Antwerp, 1539 The idea of planets has evolved over its history, from the divine wandering stars of antiquity to the earthly objects of the scientific age. The concept has expanded to include worlds not only in the Solar System, but in hundreds of other extrasolar systems. The ambiguities inherent in defining planets have led to much scientific controversy.

The five classical planets, being visible to the naked eye, have been known since ancient times and have had a significant impact on mythology, religious cosmology, and ancient astronomy. In ancient times, astronomers noted how certain lights moved across the sky in relation to the other stars. Ancient Greeks called these lights πλάνητες ἀστέρες (planētes asteres, "wandering stars") or simply πλανῆται (planētai, "wanderers"),[11] from which today's word "planet" was derived.[12][13] In ancient Greece, China, Babylon, and indeed all pre-modern civilizations,[14][15] it was almost universally believed that Earth was the center of the Universe and that all the "planets" circled Earth. The reasons for this perception were that stars and planets appeared to revolve around Earth each day[16] and the apparently common-sense perceptions that Earth was solid and stable and that it was not moving but at rest.

Babylon[edit source | edit] Main article: Babylonian astronomy The first civilization known to have a functional theory of the planets were the Babylonians, who lived in Mesopotamia in the first and second millennia BC. The oldest surviving planetary astronomical text is the Babylonian Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa, a 7th-century BC copy of a list of observations of the motions of the planet Venus, that probably dates as early as the second millennium BC.[17] The MUL.APIN is a pair of cuneiform tablets dating from the 7th century BC that lays out the motions of the Sun, Moon and planets over the course of the year.[18] The Babylonian astrologers also laid the foundations of what would eventually become Western astrology.[19] The Enuma anu enlil, written during the Neo-Assyrian period in the 7th century BC,[20] comprises a list of omens and their relationships with various celestial phenomena including the motions of the planets.[21][22] Venus, Mercury and the outer planets Mars, Jupiter and Saturn were all identified by Babylonian astronomers. These would remain the only known planets until the invention of the telescope in early modern times.[23]

Greco-Roman astronomy[edit source | edit] See also: Greek astronomy Ptolemy's 7 planetary spheres 1 Moon ☾	2 Mercury ☿	3 Venus ♀	4 Sun ☉	5 Mars ♂	6 Jupiter ♃	7 Saturn ♄ The ancient Greeks initially did not attach as much significance to the planets as the Babylonians. The Pythagoreans, in the 6th and 5th centuries BC appear to have developed their own independent planetary theory, which consisted of the Earth, Sun, Moon, and planets revolving around a "Central Fire" at the center of the Universe. Pythagoras or Parmenides is said to have been the first to identify the evening star (Hesperos) and morning star (Phosphoros) as one and the same (Aphrodite, Greek corresponding to Latin Venus).[24] In the 3rd century BC, Aristarchus of Samos proposed a heliocentric system, according to which Earth and the planets revolved around the Sun. The geocentric system remained dominant until the Scientific Revolution.

By the 1st century BC, during the Hellenistic period, the Greeks had begun to develop their own mathematical schemes for predicting the positions of the planets. These schemes, which were based on geometry rather than the arithmetic of the Babylonians, would eventually eclipse the Babylonians' theories in complexity and comprehensiveness, and account for most of the astronomical movements observed from Earth with the naked eye. These theories would reach their fullest expression in the Almagest written by Ptolemy in the 2nd century CE. So complete was the domination of Ptolemy's model that it superseded all previous works on astronomy and remained the definitive astronomical text in the Western world for 13 centuries.[17][25] To the Greeks and Romans there were seven known planets, each presumed to be circling Earth according to the complex laws laid out by Ptolemy. They were, in increasing order from Earth (in Ptolemy's order): the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.[13][25][26]

India[edit source | edit] Main articles: Indian astronomy and Hindu cosmology In 499 CE, the Indian astronomer Aryabhata propounded a planetary model that explicitly incorporated Earth's rotation about its axis, which he explains as the cause of what appears to be an apparent westward motion of the stars. He also believed that the orbits of planets are elliptical.[27] Aryabhata's followers were particularly strong in South India, where his principles of the diurnal rotation of Earth, among others, were followed and a number of secondary works were based on them.[28]

In 1500, Nilakantha Somayaji of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics, in his Tantrasangraha, revised Aryabhata's model.[29] In his Aryabhatiyabhasya, a commentary on Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya, he developed a planetary model where Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn orbit the Sun, which in turn orbits Earth, similar to the Tychonic system later proposed by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century. Most astronomers of the Kerala school who followed him accepted his planetary model.[29][30]

Medieval Muslim astronomy[edit source | edit] Main articles: Astronomy in medieval Islam and Islamic cosmology In the 11th century, the transit of Venus was observed by Avicenna, who established that Venus was, at least sometimes, below the Sun.[31] In the 12th century, Ibn Bajjah observed "two planets as black spots on the face of the Sun", which was later identified as a transit of Mercury and Venus by the Maragha astronomer Qotb al-Din Shirazi in the 13th century.[32] Ibn Bajjah could not have observed a transit of Venus, because none occurred in his lifetime.[33]

European Renaissance[edit source | edit] Renaissance planets, c. 1543 to 1610 and c. 1680 to 1781 1 Mercury ☿	2 Venus ♀	3 Earth ⊕	4 Mars ♂	5 Jupiter ♃	6 Saturn ♄ See also: Heliocentrism With the advent of the Scientific Revolution, use of the term "planet" changed from something that moved across the sky (in relation to the star field); to a body that orbited Earth (or that were believed to do so at the time); and by the 18th century to something that directly orbited the Sun when the heliocentric model of Copernicus, Galileo and Kepler gained sway.

Thus, Earth became included in the list of planets,[34] whereas the Sun and Moon were excluded. At first, when the first satellites of Jupiter and Saturn were discovered in the 17th century, the terms "planet" and "satellite" were used interchangeably – although the latter would gradually become more prevalent in the following century.[35] Until the mid-19th century, the number of "planets" rose rapidly because any newly discovered object directly orbiting the Sun was listed as a planet by the scientific community.

19th century[edit source | edit] Eleven planets, 1807–1845 1 Mercury ☿	2 Venus ♀	3 Earth ⊕	4 Mars ♂	5 Vesta ⚶	6 Juno ⚵	7 Ceres ⚳	8 Pallas ⚴	9 Jupiter ♃	10 Saturn ♄	11 Uranus ♅ In the 19th century astronomers began to realize that recently discovered bodies that had been classified as planets for almost half a century (such as Ceres, Pallas, and Vesta) were very different from the traditional ones. These bodies shared the same region of space between Mars and Jupiter (the asteroid belt), and had a much smaller mass; as a result they were reclassified as "asteroids". In the absence of any formal definition, a "planet" came to be understood as any "large" body that orbited the Sun. Because there was a dramatic size gap between the asteroids and the planets, and the spate of new discoveries seemed to have ended after the discovery of Neptune in 1846, there was no apparent need to have a formal definition.[36]

20th century[edit source | edit] Planets 1854–1930, Solar planets 2006–present 1 Mercury ☿	2 Venus ♀	3 Earth ⊕	4 Mars ♂	5 Jupiter ♃	6 Saturn ♄	7 Uranus ♅	8 Neptune ♆ In the 20th century, Pluto was discovered. After initial observations led to the belief it was larger than Earth,[37] the object was immediately accepted as the ninth planet. Further monitoring found the body was actually much smaller: in 1936, Raymond Lyttleton suggested that Pluto may be an escaped satellite of Neptune,[38] and Fred Whipple suggested in 1964 that Pluto may be a comet.[39] As it was still larger than all known asteroids and seemingly did not exist within a larger population,[40] it kept its status until 2006.

(Solar) planets 1930–2006 1 Mercury ☿	2 Venus ♀	3 Earth ⊕	4 Mars ♂	5 Jupiter ♃	6 Saturn ♄	7 Uranus ♅	8 Neptune ♆	9 Pluto ♇ In 1992, astronomers Aleksander Wolszczan and Dale Frail announced the discovery of planets around a pulsar, PSR B1257+12.[41] This discovery is generally considered to be the first definitive detection of a planetary system around another star. Then, on October 6, 1995, Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz of the University of Geneva announced the first definitive detection of an exoplanet orbiting an ordinary main-sequence star (51 Pegasi).[42]

The discovery of extrasolar planets led to another ambiguity in defining a planet: the point at which a planet becomes a star. Many known extrasolar planets are many times the mass of Jupiter, approaching that of stellar objects known as "brown dwarfs".[43] Brown dwarfs are generally considered stars due to their ability to fuse deuterium, a heavier isotope of hydrogen. Although objects more massive than 75 times that of Jupiter fuse hydrogen, objects of only 13 Jupiter masses can fuse deuterium. Deuterium is quite rare, and most brown dwarfs would have ceased fusing deuterium long before their discovery, making them effectively indistinguishable from supermassive planets.[44]

21st century[edit source | edit] With the discovery during the latter half of the 20th century of more objects within the Solar System and large objects around other stars, disputes arose over what should constitute a planet. There were particular disagreements over whether an object should be considered a planet if it was part of a distinct population such as a belt, or if it was large enough to generate energy by the thermonuclear fusion of deuterium.

A growing number of astronomers argued for Pluto to be declassified as a planet, because many similar objects approaching its size had been found in the same region of the Solar System (the Kuiper belt) during the 1990s and early 2000s. Pluto was found to be just one small body in a population of thousands.

Some of them, such as Quaoar, Sedna, and Eris, were heralded in the popular press as the tenth planet, failing to receive widespread scientific recognition. The announcement of Eris in 2005, an object 27% more massive than Pluto, created the necessity and public desire for an official definition of a planet.

Acknowledging the problem, the IAU set about creating the definition of planet, and produced one in August 2006. The number of planets dropped to the eight significantly larger bodies that had cleared their orbit (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune), and a new class of dwarf planets was created, initially containing three objects (Ceres, Pluto and Eris).[45]

Extrasolar planet definition[edit source | edit] In 2003, The International Astronomical Union (IAU) Working Group on Extrasolar Planets made a position statement on the definition of a planet that incorporated the following working definition, mostly focused upon the boundary between planets and brown dwarfs:[3]

Objects with true masses below the limiting mass for thermonuclear fusion of deuterium (currently calculated to be 13 times the mass of Jupiter for objects with the same isotopic abundance as the Sun[46]) that orbit stars or stellar remnants are "planets" (no matter how they formed). The minimum mass and size required for an extrasolar object to be considered a planet should be the same as that used in the Solar System. Substellar objects with true masses above the limiting mass for thermonuclear fusion of deuterium are "brown dwarfs", no matter how they formed or where they are located. Free-floating objects in young star clusters with masses below the limiting mass for thermonuclear fusion of deuterium are not "planets", but are "sub-brown dwarfs" (or whatever name is most appropriate). This definition has since been widely used by astronomers when publishing discoveries of exoplanets in academic journals.[47] Although temporary, it remains an effective working definition until a more permanent one is formally adopted. It does not address the dispute over the lower mass limit,[48] and so it steered clear of the controversy regarding objects within the Solar System. This definition also makes no comment on the planetary status of objects orbiting brown dwarfs, such as 2M1207b.

One definition of a sub-brown dwarf is a planet-mass object that formed through cloud collapse rather than accretion. This formation distinction between a sub-brown dwarf and a planet is not universally agreed upon; astronomers are divided into two camps as whether to consider the formation process of a planet as part of its division in classification.[49] One reason for the dissent is that often it may not be possible to determine the formation process. For example, a planet formed by accretion around a star may get ejected from the system to become free-floating, and likewise a sub-brown dwarf that formed on its own in a star cluster through cloud collapse may get captured into orbit around a star.

The 13 Jupiter-mass cutoff is a rule of thumb rather than something of precise physical significance. The question arises: what is meant by deuterium burning? This question arises because large objects will burn most of their deuterium and smaller ones will burn only a little, and the 13 MJ value is somewhere in between. The amount of deuterium burnt depends not only on mass but also on the composition of the planet, on the amount of helium and deuterium present.[50] The Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia includes objects up to 25 Jupiter masses, saying, "The fact that there is no special feature around 13 MJ in the observed mass spectrum reinforces the choice to forget this mass limit."[51] The Exoplanet Data Explorer includes objects up to 24 Jupiter masses with the advisory: "The 13 Jupiter-mass distinction by the IAU Working Group is physically unmotivated for planets with rocky cores, and observationally problematic due to the sin i ambiguity."[52] The NASA Exoplanet Archive includes objects with a mass (or minimum mass) equal to or less than 30 Jupiter masses.[53]

Another criterion for separating planets and brown dwarfs, rather than deuterium burning, formation process or location, is whether the core pressure is dominated by coulomb pressure or electron degeneracy pressure.[54][55]

2006 definition[edit source | edit] Main article: IAU definition of planet The matter of the lower limit was addressed during the 2006 meeting of the IAU's General Assembly. After much debate and one failed proposal, 232 members of the 10,000 member assembly, who nevertheless constituted a large majority of those remaining at the meeting, voted to pass a resolution. The 2006 resolution redefines planets within the Solar System as:[2]

A celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and (c) has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit. Under this definition, the Solar System is considered to have eight planets. Bodies that fulfill the first two conditions but not the third (such as Ceres, Pluto, and Eris) are classified as dwarf planets, provided they are not also natural satellites of other planets. Originally an IAU committee had proposed a definition that would have included a much larger number of planets as it did not include (c) as a criterion.[56] After much discussion, it was decided via a vote that those bodies should instead be classified as dwarf planets.[57]

This definition is based in theories of planetary formation, in which planetary embryos initially clear their orbital neighborhood of other smaller objects. As described by astronomer Steven Soter:[58]

The end product of secondary disk accretion is a small number of relatively large bodies (planets) in either non-intersecting or resonant orbits, which prevent collisions between them. Minor planets and comets, including KBOs [Kuiper belt objects], differ from planets in that they can collide with each other and with planets. Beyond the scientific community, Pluto still holds cultural significance for many in the general public due to its historical classification as a planet from 1930 to 2006.[59]

Objects formerly considered planets[edit source | edit] The table below lists Solar System bodies once considered to be planets.

Body	Current classification	Notes Sun	Star	Classified as classical planets (Ancient Greek πλανῆται, wanderers) in classical antiquity and medieval Europe, in accordance with the now-disproved geocentric model.[60] Moon	Moon Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto	Moons	The four largest moons of Jupiter, known as the Galilean moons after their discoverer Galileo Galilei. He referred to them as the "Medicean Planets" in honor of his patron, the Medici family. They were known as secondary planets.[61] Titan,[e] Iapetus,[f] Rhea,[f] Tethys,[g] and Dione[g]	Moons	Five of Saturn's larger moons, discovered by Christiaan Huygens and Giovanni Domenico Cassini. As with Jupiter's major moons, they were known as secondary planets.[61] Ceres	Dwarf planet and asteroid	Regarded as planets from their discoveries between 1801 and 1807 until they were reclassified as asteroids during the 1850s.[63] Ceres was subsequently classified as a dwarf planet in 2006. Pallas, Juno, and Vesta	Asteroids Astrea, Hebe, Iris, Flora, Metis, Hygeia, Parthenope, Victoria, Egeria, Irene, Eunomia	Asteroids	More asteroids, discovered between 1845 and 1851. The rapidly expanding list of bodies between Mars and Jupiter prompted their reclassification as asteroids, which was widely accepted by 1854.[64] Pluto	Dwarf planet and Kuiper belt object	The first known trans-Neptunian object (i.e. minor planet with a semi-major axis beyond Neptune). Regarded as a planet from its discovery in 1930 until it was reclassified as a dwarf planet in 2006. A few astronomers, such as Alan Stern, consider dwarf planets and the larger moons to be planets, based on a purely geophysical definition of planet.[65]

Mythology and naming[edit source | edit] See also: Weekday names and Naked-eye planet

The gods of Olympus, after whom the Solar System's planets are named The names for the planets in the Western world are derived from the naming practices of the Romans, which ultimately derive from those of the Greeks and the Babylonians. In ancient Greece, the two great luminaries the Sun and the Moon were called Helios and Selene; the farthest planet (Saturn) was called Phainon, the shiner; followed by Phaethon (Jupiter), "bright"; the red planet (Mars) was known as Pyroeis, the "fiery"; the brightest (Venus) was known as Phosphoros, the light bringer; and the fleeting final planet (Mercury) was called Stilbon, the gleamer. The Greeks also made each planet sacred to one among their pantheon of gods, the Olympians: Helios and Selene were the names of both planets and gods; Phainon was sacred to Cronus, the Titan who fathered the Olympians; Phaethon was sacred to Zeus, Cronus's son who deposed him as king; Pyroeis was given to Ares, son of Zeus and god of war; Phosphoros was ruled by Aphrodite, the goddess of love; and Hermes, messenger of the gods and god of learning and wit, ruled over Stilbon.[17]

The Greek practice of grafting of their gods' names onto the planets was almost certainly borrowed from the Babylonians. The Babylonians named Phosphoros after their goddess of love, Ishtar; Pyroeis after their god of war, Nergal, Stilbon after their god of wisdom Nabu, and Phaethon after their chief god, Marduk.[66] There are too many concordances between Greek and Babylonian naming conventions for them to have arisen separately.[17] The translation was not perfect. For instance, the Babylonian Nergal was a god of war, and thus the Greeks identified him with Ares. Unlike Ares, Nergal was also god of pestilence and the underworld.[67]

Today, most people in the western world know the planets by names derived from the Olympian pantheon of gods. Although modern Greeks still use their ancient names for the planets, other European languages, because of the influence of the Roman Empire and, later, the Catholic Church, use the Roman (Latin) names rather than the Greek ones. The Romans, who, like the Greeks, were Indo-Europeans, shared with them a common pantheon under different names but lacked the rich narrative traditions that Greek poetic culture had given their gods. During the later period of the Roman Republic, Roman writers borrowed much of the Greek narratives and applied them to their own pantheon, to the point where they became virtually indistinguishable.[68] When the Romans studied Greek astronomy, they gave the planets their own gods' names: Mercurius (for Hermes), Venus (Aphrodite), Mars (Ares), Iuppiter (Zeus) and Saturnus (Cronus). When subsequent planets were discovered in the 18th and 19th centuries, the naming practice was retained with Neptūnus (Poseidon). Uranus is unique in that it is named for a Greek deity rather than his Roman counterpart.

Some Romans, following a belief possibly originating in Mesopotamia but developed in Hellenistic Egypt, believed that the seven gods after whom the planets were named took hourly shifts in looking after affairs on Earth. The order of shifts went Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Sun, Venus, Mercury, Moon (from the farthest to the closest planet).[69] Therefore, the first day was started by Saturn (1st hour), second day by Sun (25th hour), followed by Moon (49th hour), Mars, Mercury, Jupiter and Venus. Because each day was named by the god that started it, this is also the order of the days of the week in the Roman calendar after the Nundinal cycle was rejected – and still preserved in many modern languages.[70] In English, Saturday, Sunday, and Monday are straightforward translations of these Roman names. The other days were renamed after Tiw, (Tuesday) Wóden (Wednesday), Thunor (Thursday), and Fríge (Friday), the Anglo-Saxon gods considered similar or equivalent to Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, and Venus, respectively.

Earth is the only planet whose name in English is not derived from Greco-Roman mythology. Because it was only generally accepted as a planet in the 17th century,[34] there is no tradition of naming it after a god. (The same is true, in English at least, of the Sun and the Moon, though they are no longer generally considered planets.) The name originates from the 8th century Anglo-Saxon word erda, which means ground or soil and was first used in writing as the name of the sphere of Earth perhaps around 1300.[71][72] As with its equivalents in the other Germanic languages, it derives ultimately from the Proto-Germanic word ertho, "ground",[72] as can be seen in the English earth, the German Erde, the Dutch aarde, and the Scandinavian jord. Many of the Romance languages retain the old Roman word terra (or some variation of it) that was used with the meaning of "dry land" as opposed to "sea".[73] The non-Romance languages use their own native words. The Greeks retain their original name, Γή (Ge).

Non-European cultures use other planetary-naming systems. India uses a system based on the Navagraha, which incorporates the seven traditional planets (Surya for the Sun, Chandra for the Moon, and Budha, Shukra, Mangala, Bṛhaspati and Shani for Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn) and the ascending and descending lunar nodes Rahu and Ketu. China and the countries of eastern Asia historically subject to Chinese cultural influence (such as Japan, Korea and Vietnam) use a naming system based on the five Chinese elements: water (Mercury), metal (Venus), fire (Mars), wood (Jupiter) and earth (Saturn).[70]

Formation[edit source | edit] Main article: Nebular hypothesis

An artist's impression of protoplanetary disk It is not known with certainty how planets are formed. The prevailing theory is that they are formed during the collapse of a nebula into a thin disk of gas and dust. A protostar forms at the core, surrounded by a rotating protoplanetary disk. Through accretion (a process of sticky collision) dust particles in the disk steadily accumulate mass to form ever-larger bodies. Local concentrations of mass known as planetesimals form, and these accelerate the accretion process by drawing in additional material by their gravitational attraction. These concentrations become ever denser until they collapse inward under gravity to form protoplanets.[74] After a planet reaches a diameter larger than the Moon, it begins to accumulate an extended atmosphere, greatly increasing the capture rate of the planetesimals by means of atmospheric drag.[75]

Asteroid collision - building planets (artist concept). When the protostar has grown such that it ignites to form a star, the surviving disk is removed from the inside outward by photoevaporation, the solar wind, Poynting–Robertson drag and other effects.[76][77] Thereafter there still may be many protoplanets orbiting the star or each other, but over time many will collide, either to form a single larger planet or release material for other larger protoplanets or planets to absorb.[78] Those objects that have become massive enough will capture most matter in their orbital neighbourhoods to become planets. Protoplanets that have avoided collisions may become natural satellites of planets through a process of gravitational capture, or remain in belts of other objects to become either dwarf planets or small bodies.

The energetic impacts of the smaller planetesimals (as well as radioactive decay) will heat up the growing planet, causing it to at least partially melt. The interior of the planet begins to differentiate by mass, developing a denser core.[79] Smaller terrestrial planets lose most of their atmospheres because of this accretion, but the lost gases can be replaced by outgassing from the mantle and from the subsequent impact of comets.[80] (Smaller planets will lose any atmosphere they gain through various escape mechanisms.)

With the discovery and observation of planetary systems around stars other than the Sun, it is becoming possible to elaborate, revise or even replace this account. The level of metallicity—an astronomical term describing the abundance of chemical elements with an atomic number greater than 2 (helium)—is now believed to determine the likelihood that a star will have planets.[81] Hence, it is thought that a metal-rich population I star will likely have a more substantial planetary system than a metal-poor, population II star.

Supernova remnant ejecta producing planet-forming material. Solar System[edit source | edit] Solar System – sizes but not distances are to scale

The Sun and the eight planets of the Solar System

The inner planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars

The four giant planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune against the Sun and some sunspots Main article: Solar System See also: List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System There are eight planets in the Solar System, which are in increasing distance from the Sun:

☿ Mercury ♀ Venus ⊕ Earth ♂ Mars ♃ Jupiter ♄ Saturn ♅ Uranus ♆ Neptune Jupiter is the largest, at 318 Earth masses, whereas Mercury is the smallest, at 0.055 Earth masses.

The planets of the Solar System can be divided into categories based on their composition:

Terrestrials: Planets that are similar to Earth, with bodies largely composed of rock: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. At 0.055 Earth masses, Mercury is the smallest terrestrial planet (and smallest planet) in the Solar System. Earth is the largest terrestrial planet. Giant planets (Jovians): Massive planets significantly more massive than the terrestrials: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune. Gas giants, Jupiter and Saturn, are giant planets primarily composed of hydrogen and helium and are the most massive planets in the Solar System. Jupiter, at 318 Earth masses, is the largest planet in the Solar System, and Saturn is one third as massive, at 95 Earth masses. Ice giants, Uranus and Neptune, are primarily composed of low-boiling-point materials such as water, methane, and ammonia, with thick atmospheres of hydrogen and helium. They have a significantly lower mass than the gas giants (only 14 and 17 Earth masses). Planetary attributes[edit source | edit] Name	Equatorial diameter [h]	Mass [h]	Semi-major axis (AU)	Orbital period (years) [h]	Inclination to Sun's equator (°)	Orbital eccentricity	Rotation period (days)	Confirmed moons [i]	Axial tilt	Rings	Atmosphere 1.	Mercury	0.382	0.06	0.39	0.24	3.38	0.206	58.64	0	0.04°	no	minimal 2.	Venus	0.949	0.82	0.72	0.62	3.86	0.007	−243.02	0	177.36°	no	CO2, N2 3.	Earth (a)	1.00	1.00	1.00	1.00	7.25	0.017	1.00	1	23.44°	no	N2, O2, Ar 4.	Mars	0.532	0.11	1.52	1.88	5.65	0.093	1.03	2	25.19°	no	CO2, N2, Ar 5.	Jupiter	11.209	317.8	5.20	11.86	6.09	0.048	0.41	67	3.13°	yes	H2, He 6.	Saturn	9.449	95.2	9.54	29.46	5.51	0.054	0.43	62	26.73°	yes	H2, He 7.	Uranus	4.007	14.6	19.22	84.01	6.48	0.047	−0.72	27	97.77°	yes	H2, He, CH4 8.	Neptune	3.883	17.2	30.06	164.8	6.43	0.009	0.67	14	28.32°	yes	H2, He, CH4 Color legend:      terrestrial planets       gas giants       ice giants (both are giant planets). (a) Find absolute values in article Earth Exoplanets[edit source | edit] Main article: Exoplanet

Exoplanets, by year of discovery, through September 2014. An exoplanet (extrasolar planet) is a planet outside the Solar System. Around 1800 such planets have been discovered[83][84][85] (1956 planets in 1239 planetary systems including 488 multiple planetary systems as of 12 September 2015).[4]

In early 1992, radio astronomers Aleksander Wolszczan and Dale Frail announced the discovery of two planets orbiting the pulsar PSR 1257+12.[41] This discovery was confirmed, and is generally considered to be the first definitive detection of exoplanets. These pulsar planets are believed to have formed from the unusual remnants of the supernova that produced the pulsar, in a second round of planet formation, or else to be the remaining rocky cores of giant planets that survived the supernova and then decayed into their current orbits.

Sizes of Kepler Planet Candidates – based on 2,740 candidates orbiting 2,036 stars as of 4 November 2013 (NASA). The first confirmed discovery of an extrasolar planet orbiting an ordinary main-sequence star occurred on 6 October 1995, when Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz of the University of Geneva announced the detection of an exoplanet around 51 Pegasi. From then until the Kepler mission most known extrasolar planets were gas giants comparable in mass to Jupiter or larger as they were more easily detected. The catalog of Kepler candidate planets consists mostly of planets the size of Neptune and smaller, down to smaller than Mercury.

There are types of planets that do not exist in the Solar System: super-Earths and mini-Neptunes, which could be rocky like Earth or a mixture of volatiles and gas like Neptune—a radius of 1.75 times that of Earth is a possible dividing line between the two types of planet.[86] There are hot Jupiters that orbit very close to their star and may evaporate to become chthonian planets, which are the leftover cores. Another possible type of planet is carbon planets, which form in systems with a higher proportion of carbon than in the Solar System.

A 2012 study, analyzing gravitational microlensing data, estimates an average of at least 1.6 bound planets for every star in the Milky Way.[10]

On December 20, 2011, the Kepler Space Telescope team reported the discovery of the first Earth-size exoplanets, Kepler-20e[5] and Kepler-20f,[6] orbiting a Sun-like star, Kepler-20.[7][8][9]

Around 1 in 5 Sun-like[b] stars have an "Earth-sized"[c] planet in the habitable[d] zone, so the nearest would be expected to be within 12 light-years distance from Earth.[87][88] The frequency of occurrence of such terrestrial planets is one of the variables in the Drake equation, which estimates the number of intelligent, communicating civilizations that exist in the Milky Way.[89]

There are exoplanets that are much closer to their parent star than any planet in the Solar System is to the Sun, and there are also exoplanets that are much further from their star. Mercury, the closest planet to the Sun at 0.4AU, takes 88-days for an orbit, but the shortest known orbits for exoplanets take only a few hours, e.g. Kepler-70b. The Kepler-11 system has five of its planets in shorter orbits than Mercury. Neptune is 30AU from the Sun and takes 165 years to orbit, but there are exoplanets that are hundreds of AU from their star and take more than a thousand years to orbit, e.g. 1RXS1609 b.

The next few space telescopes to study exoplanets are expected to be Gaia launched in December 2013, CHEOPS in 2017, TESS in 2017, and the James Webb Space Telescope in 2018.

Planetary-mass objects[edit source | edit] See also: List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System A planetary-mass object (PMO), planemo[90] /ˈplænɨmoʊ/, or planetary body is a celestial object with a mass that falls within the range of the definition of a planet: massive enough to achieve hydrostatic equilibrium (to be rounded under its own gravity), but not enough to sustain core fusion like a star.[91][92] By definition, all planets are planetary-mass objects, but the purpose of this term is to refer to objects that do not conform to typical expectations for a planet. These include dwarf planets, the larger moons, and free-floating planemos, which may have been ejected from a system (rogue planets) or formed through cloud-collapse rather than accretion (sometimes called sub-brown dwarfs).

Rogue planets[edit source | edit] Main article: Rogue planet Several computer simulations of stellar and planetary system formation have suggested that some objects of planetary mass would be ejected into interstellar space.[93] Some scientists have argued that such objects found roaming in deep space should be classed as "planets", although others have suggested that they should be called low-mass brown dwarfs.[94][95]

Sub-brown dwarfs[edit source | edit] Main article: Sub-brown dwarf Stars form via the gravitational collapse of gas clouds, but smaller objects can also form via cloud-collapse. Planetary-mass objects formed this way are sometimes called sub-brown dwarfs. Sub-brown dwarfs may be free-floating such as Cha 110913-773444[94] and OTS 44,[96] or orbiting a larger object such as 2MASS J04414489+2301513.

For a brief time in 2006, astronomers believed they had found a binary system of such objects, Oph 162225-240515, which the discoverers described as "planemos", or "planetary-mass objects". Recent analysis of the objects has determined that their masses are probably each greater than 13 Jupiter-masses, making the pair brown dwarfs.[97][98][99]

Former stars[edit source | edit] In close binary star systems one of the stars can lose mass to a heavier companion. Accretion-powered pulsars may drive mass loss. The shrinking star can then become a planetary-mass object. An example is a Jupiter-mass object orbiting the pulsar PSR J1719-1438.[100] These shrunken white dwarfs may become a helium planet or diamond planet.

Satellite planets and belt planets[edit source | edit] Some large satellites are of similar size or larger than the planet Mercury, e.g. Jupiter's Galilean moons and Titan. Alan Stern has argued that location should not matter and that only geophysical attributes should be taken into account in the definition of a planet, and proposes the term satellite planet for a planet-sized satellite. Likewise, dwarf planets in the asteroid belt and Kuiper belt should be considered planets according to Stern.[65]

Captured planets[edit source | edit] Free-floating planets in stellar clusters have similar velocities to the stars and so can be recaptured. They are typically captured into wide orbits between 100 and 105 AU. The capture efficiency decreases with increasing cluster volume, and for a given cluster size it increases with the host/primary mass. It is almost independent of the planetary mass. Single and multiple planets could be captured into arbitrary unaligned orbits, non-coplanar with each other or with the stellar host spin, or pre-existing planetary system.[101]

Attributes[edit source | edit] Although each planet has unique physical characteristics, a number of broad commonalities do exist among them. Some of these characteristics, such as rings or natural satellites, have only as yet been observed in planets in the Solar System, whereas others are also commonly observed in extrasolar planets.

Dynamic characteristics[edit source | edit] Orbit[edit source | edit] Main articles: Orbit and Orbital elements See also: Kepler's laws of planetary motion

The orbit of the planet Neptune compared to that of Pluto. Note the elongation of Pluto's orbit in relation to Neptune's (eccentricity), as well as its large angle to the ecliptic (inclination). According to current definitions, all planets must revolve around stars; thus, any potential "rogue planets" are excluded. In the Solar System, all the planets orbit the Sun in the same direction as the Sun rotates (counter-clockwise as seen from above the Sun's north pole). At least one extrasolar planet, WASP-17b, has been found to orbit in the opposite direction to its star's rotation.[102] The period of one revolution of a planet's orbit is known as its sidereal period or year.[103] A planet's year depends on its distance from its star; the farther a planet is from its star, not only the longer the distance it must travel, but also the slower its speed, because it is less affected by its star's gravity. No planet's orbit is perfectly circular, and hence the distance of each varies over the course of its year. The closest approach to its star is called its periastron (perihelion in the Solar System), whereas its farthest separation from the star is called its apastron (aphelion). As a planet approaches periastron, its speed increases as it trades gravitational potential energy for kinetic energy, just as a falling object on Earth accelerates as it falls; as the planet reaches apastron, its speed decreases, just as an object thrown upwards on Earth slows down as it reaches the apex of its trajectory.[104]

Each planet's orbit is delineated by a set of elements:

The eccentricity of an orbit describes how elongated a planet's orbit is. Planets with low eccentricities have more circular orbits, whereas planets with high eccentricities have more elliptical orbits. The planets in the Solar System have very low eccentricities, and thus nearly circular orbits.[103] Comets and Kuiper belt objects (as well as several extrasolar planets) have very high eccentricities, and thus exceedingly elliptical orbits.[105][106]

Illustration of the semi-major axis The semi-major axis is the distance from a planet to the half-way point along the longest diameter of its elliptical orbit (see image). This distance is not the same as its apastron, because no planet's orbit has its star at its exact centre.[103] The inclination of a planet tells how far above or below an established reference plane its orbit lies. In the Solar System, the reference plane is the plane of Earth's orbit, called the ecliptic. For extrasolar planets, the plane, known as the sky plane or plane of the sky, is the plane perpendicular to the observer's line of sight from Earth.[107] The eight planets of the Solar System all lie very close to the ecliptic; comets and Kuiper belt objects like Pluto are at far more extreme angles to it.[108] The points at which a planet crosses above and below its reference plane are called its ascending and descending nodes.[103] The longitude of the ascending node is the angle between the reference plane's 0 longitude and the planet's ascending node. The argument of periapsis (or perihelion in the Solar System) is the angle between a planet's ascending node and its closest approach to its star.[103] Axial tilt[edit source | edit] Main article: Axial tilt

Earth's axial tilt is about 23.4°. It oscillates between 22.1° and 24.5° on a 41,000-year cycle and is currently decreasing. Planets also have varying degrees of axial tilt; they lie at an angle to the plane of their stars' equators. This causes the amount of light received by each hemisphere to vary over the course of its year; when the northern hemisphere points away from its star, the southern hemisphere points towards it, and vice versa. Each planet therefore has seasons; changes to the climate over the course of its year. The time at which each hemisphere points farthest or nearest from its star is known as its solstice. Each planet has two in the course of its orbit; when one hemisphere has its summer solstice, when its day is longest, the other has its winter solstice, when its day is shortest. The varying amount of light and heat received by each hemisphere creates annual changes in weather patterns for each half of the planet. Jupiter's axial tilt is very small, so its seasonal variation is minimal; Uranus, on the other hand, has an axial tilt so extreme it is virtually on its side, which means that its hemispheres are either perpetually in sunlight or perpetually in darkness around the time of its solstices.[109] Among extrasolar planets, axial tilts are not known for certain, though most hot Jupiters are believed to have negligible to no axial tilt as a result of their proximity to their stars.[110]

Rotation[edit source | edit] The planets rotate around invisible axes through their centres. A planet's rotation period is known as a stellar day. Most of the planets in the Solar System rotate in the same direction as they orbit the Sun, which is counter-clockwise as seen from above the Sun's north pole, the exceptions being Venus[111] and Uranus,[112] which rotate clockwise, though Uranus's extreme axial tilt means there are differing conventions on which of its poles is "north", and therefore whether it is rotating clockwise or anti-clockwise.[113] Regardless of which convention is used, Uranus has a retrograde rotation relative to its orbit.

The rotation of a planet can be induced by several factors during formation. A net angular momentum can be induced by the individual angular momentum contributions of accreted objects. The accretion of gas by the giant planets can also contribute to the angular momentum. Finally, during the last stages of planet building, a stochastic process of protoplanetary accretion can randomly alter the spin axis of the planet.[114] There is great variation in the length of day between the planets, with Venus taking 243 days to rotate, and the giant planets only a few hours.[115] The rotational periods of extrasolar planets are not known, but their proximity to their stars means that hot Jupiters are tidally locked (their orbits are in sync with their rotations). This means they only ever show one face to their stars, with one side in perpetual day, the other in perpetual night.[116]

Orbital clearing[edit source | edit] Main article: Clearing the neighbourhood The defining dynamic characteristic of a planet is that it has cleared its neighborhood. A planet that has cleared its neighborhood has accumulated enough mass to gather up or sweep away all the planetesimals in its orbit. In effect, it orbits its star in isolation, as opposed to sharing its orbit with a multitude of similar-sized objects. This characteristic was mandated as part of the IAU's official definition of a planet in August, 2006. This criterion excludes such planetary bodies as Pluto, Eris and Ceres from full-fledged planethood, making them instead dwarf planets.[2] Although to date this criterion only applies to the Solar System, a number of young extrasolar systems have been found in which evidence suggests orbital clearing is taking place within their circumstellar discs.[117]

Physical characteristics[edit source | edit] Mass[edit source | edit] Main article: Planetary mass A planet's defining physical characteristic is that it is massive enough for the force of its own gravity to dominate over the electromagnetic forces binding its physical structure, leading to a state of hydrostatic equilibrium. This effectively means that all planets are spherical or spheroidal. Up to a certain mass, an object can be irregular in shape, but beyond that point, which varies depending on the chemical makeup of the object, gravity begins to pull an object towards its own centre of mass until the object collapses into a sphere.[118]

Mass is also the prime attribute by which planets are distinguished from stars. The upper mass limit for planethood is roughly 13 times Jupiter's mass for objects with solar-type isotopic abundance, beyond which it achieves conditions suitable for nuclear fusion. Other than the Sun, no objects of such mass exist in the Solar System; but there are exoplanets of this size. The 13-Jupiter-mass limit is not universally agreed upon and the Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia includes objects up to 20 Jupiter masses,[119] and the Exoplanet Data Explorer up to 24 Jupiter masses.[120]

The smallest known planet is PSR B1257+12A, one of the first extrasolar planets discovered, which was found in 1992 in orbit around a pulsar. Its mass is roughly half that of the planet Mercury.[4] The smallest known planet orbiting a main-sequence star other than the Sun is Kepler-37b, with a mass (and radius) slightly higher than that of the Moon.

Internal differentiation[edit source | edit] Main article: Planetary differentiation

Illustration of the interior of Jupiter, with a rocky core overlaid by a deep layer of metallic hydrogen Every planet began its existence in an entirely fluid state; in early formation, the denser, heavier materials sank to the centre, leaving the lighter materials near the surface. Each therefore has a differentiated interior consisting of a dense planetary core surrounded by a mantle that either is or was a fluid. The terrestrial planets are sealed within hard crusts,[121] but in the giant planets the mantle simply blends into the upper cloud layers. The terrestrial planets have cores of elements such as iron and nickel, and mantles of silicates. Jupiter and Saturn are believed to have cores of rock and metal surrounded by mantles of metallic hydrogen.[122] Uranus and Neptune, which are smaller, have rocky cores surrounded by mantles of water, ammonia, methane and other ices.[123] The fluid action within these planets' cores creates a geodynamo that generates a magnetic field.[121]

Atmosphere[edit source | edit] Main articles: Atmosphere and Extraterrestrial atmospheres See also: Extraterrestrial skies

Earth's atmosphere All of the Solar System planets except Mercury[124] have substantial atmospheres because their gravity is strong enough to keep gases close to the surface. The larger giant planets are massive enough to keep large amounts of the light gases hydrogen and helium, whereas the smaller planets lose these gases into space.[125] The composition of Earth's atmosphere is different from the other planets because the various life processes that have transpired on the planet have introduced free molecular oxygen.[126]

Planetary atmospheres are affected by the varying insolation or internal energy, leading to the formation of dynamic weather systems such as hurricanes, (on Earth), planet-wide dust storms (on Mars), an Earth-sized anticyclone on Jupiter (called the Great Red Spot), and holes in the atmosphere (on Neptune).[109] At least one extrasolar planet, HD 189733 b, has been claimed to have such a weather system, similar to the Great Red Spot but twice as large.[127]

Hot Jupiters, due to their extreme proximities to their host stars, have been shown to be losing their atmospheres into space due to stellar radiation, much like the tails of comets.[128][129] These planets may have vast differences in temperature between their day and night sides that produce supersonic winds,[130] although the day and night sides of HD 189733 b appear to have very similar temperatures, indicating that that planet's atmosphere effectively redistributes the star's energy around the planet.[127]

Magnetosphere[edit source | edit] Main article: Magnetosphere

Earth's magnetosphere (diagram) One important characteristic of the planets is their intrinsic magnetic moments, which in turn give rise to magnetospheres. The presence of a magnetic field indicates that the planet is still geologically alive. In other words, magnetized planets have flows of electrically conducting material in their interiors, which generate their magnetic fields. These fields significantly change the interaction of the planet and solar wind. A magnetized planet creates a cavity in the solar wind around itself called magnetosphere, which the wind cannot penetrate. The magnetosphere can be much larger than the planet itself. In contrast, non-magnetized planets have only small magnetospheres induced by interaction of the ionosphere with the solar wind, which cannot effectively protect the planet.[131]

Of the eight planets in the Solar System, only Venus and Mars lack such a magnetic field.[131] In addition, the moon of Jupiter Ganymede also has one. Of the magnetized planets the magnetic field of Mercury is the weakest, and is barely able to deflect the solar wind. Ganymede's magnetic field is several times larger, and Jupiter's is the strongest in the Solar System (so strong in fact that it poses a serious health risk to future manned missions to its moons). The magnetic fields of the other giant planets are roughly similar in strength to that of Earth, but their magnetic moments are significantly larger. The magnetic fields of Uranus and Neptune are strongly tilted relative the rotational axis and displaced from the centre of the planet.[131]

In 2004, a team of astronomers in Hawaii observed an extrasolar planet around the star HD 179949, which appeared to be creating a sunspot on the surface of its parent star. The team hypothesized that the planet's magnetosphere was transferring energy onto the star's surface, increasing its already high 7,760 °C temperature by an additional 400 °C.[132]

Secondary characteristics[edit source | edit] Main articles: Natural satellite and Planetary ring

The rings of Saturn Several planets or dwarf planets in the Solar System (such as Neptune and Pluto) have orbital periods that are in resonance with each other or with smaller bodies (this is also common in satellite systems). All except Mercury and Venus have natural satellites, often called "moons". Earth has one, Mars has two, and the giant planets have numerous moons in complex planetary-type systems. Many moons of the giant planets have features similar to those on the terrestrial planets and dwarf planets, and some have been studied as possible abodes of life (especially Europa).[133][134][135]

The four giant planets are also orbited by planetary rings of varying size and complexity. The rings are composed primarily of dust or particulate matter, but can host tiny 'moonlets' whose gravity shapes and maintains their structure. Although the origins of planetary rings is not precisely known, they are believed to be the result of natural satellites that fell below their parent planet's Roche limit and were torn apart by tidal forces.[136][137]

No secondary characteristics have been observed around extrasolar planets. The sub-brown dwarf Cha 110913-773444, which has been described as a rogue planet, is believed to be orbited by a tiny protoplanetary disc[94] and the sub-brown dwarf OTS 44 was shown to be surrounded by a substantial protoplanetary disk of at least 10 Earth masses.[96]

See also[edit source | edit] Portal icon	Astronomy portal Portal icon	Solar System portal Portal icon	Space portal Double planet – Two planetary mass objects orbiting each other Landings on other planets List of hypothetical Solar System objects Mesoplanet – Planets smaller than Mercury but larger than Ceres Minor planet – A celestial body smaller than a planet Planetary habitability – The measure of a planet's ability to sustain life Planetary mnemonic – A phrase used to remember the names of the planets Planetary science – The scientific study of planets Planets in astrology Planets in science fiction Theoretical planetology

God the Son From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia See also: Son of God

God resting after creation – Christ depicted as the creator of the world, Byzantine mosaic in Monreale, Sicily. Part of a series on Christianity Jesus depicted as the Good Shepherd Jesus Christ [hide] Jesus in Christianity Virgin birth Ministry Crucifixion Resurrection Bible Foundations [hide] Old Testament New Testament Gospel Canon Books Church Creed New Covenant Theology[hide] God Trinity Father Son Holy Spirit Apologetics Baptism Catholicism Christology History of theology Mission Salvation History Tradition [hide] Mary Apostles Peter Paul Fathers Early Christianity Constantine Councils Augustine East–West Schism Crusades Aquinas Reformation Luther Related topics[hide] Art Holidays (list) Criticism Ecumenism Liturgy Music Other religions Prayer Sermon Symbolism Denominations Groups [hide] Western Adventist Anabaptist Anglican Baptist Calvinist Catholic Charismatic Evangelical Lutheran Methodist Neo-charismatic Protestant Pentecostal Eastern Eastern Orthodox Eastern Catholic Oriental Orthodox Assyrian Nontrinitarian Jehovah's Witness Latter Day Saint Oneness Pentecostal Christian cross Christianity portal v t e God the Son (Greek: Θεός ὁ υἱός) is the second person of the Trinity in Christian theology. The doctrine of the Trinity identifies Jesus as God the Son, united in essence but distinct in person with regard to God the Father and God the Holy Spirit (the first and third persons of the Trinity).

In these teachings, God the Son pre-existed before incarnation, is co-eternal with God the Father (and the Holy Spirit), both before Creation and after the End (see Eschatology). Son of God for some draws attention to his humanity, whereas God the Son refers more generally to his divinity, including his pre-incarnate existence.

Contents [hide] 1 Source of the term 2 Use of the term 3 New Testament 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Source of the term[edit] The term "God the Son" is not found in the Bible,[1][2] but is a term found in later Christian sources.[3] By scribal error the term is in one medieval manuscript, MS No.1985, where Galatians 2:20 has "Son of God" changed to "God the Son".[4]

The term in English follows Latin usage as found in the Athanasian Creed and other texts of the early church:

In Greek "God the Son" is Theos o Iios,[clarification needed Where is this used?] Θεός ὁ υἱός (as distinct from o Iios nominative tu Theu genitive, ὁ υἱός του Θεού, "Son of God"). In Latin "God the Son" is Deus (nominative) Filius (nominative). The term "deus filius" is found in the Athanasian Creed: "Et tamen non tres omnipotentes, sed unus omnipotens. Ita Deus Pater, Deus Filius, Deus [et] Spiritus Sanctus." (distinct from filius Dei genitive "son of God"), but this phrase is also translated "So the Father is God: the Son is God: and the Holy Ghost is God".[5] The distinction holds true in other modern languages apart from English, for example:

In Hebrew "God the Son" (Elohim ha-Ben אלוהים הבן) is used in modern Israeli Christian literature[citation needed] in relation to the "Holy Trinity" (ha-shilush ha-kadosh השילוש הקדוש). As distinct from the term "son of God" (ben Elohim בן אלוהים) as found in the Hebrew New Testament. Use of the term[edit] See also: God in Christianity The term "deus filius" is used in the Athanasian Creed and formulas such as Deus Pater, Deus Filius, Deus Spiritus Sanctus: Et non tres Dii, sed unus est Deus.[6]

The term is used by Saint Augustine in his On the Trinity, for example in discussion of the Son's obedience to God the Father: deo patri deus filius obediens.[7]

Jacques Forget (1910) in the Catholic Encyclopedia article "Holy Ghost" notes that "Among the apologists, Athenagoras mentions the Holy Ghost along with, and on the same plane as, the Father and the Son. 'Who would not be astonished', says he (A Plea for the Christians 10), 'to hear us called atheists, us who confess God the Father, God the Son and the Holy Ghost, and hold them one in power and distinct in order.' "[8] Saint Augustine in Sermon 90 on the New Testament says, "2. For hold this fast as a firm and settled truth, if you would continue Catholics, that God the Father begot God the Son without time, and made Him of a Virgin in time."[9]

The Augsburg Confession (1530) adopted the phrase as Gott der Sohn.[10]

In medieval art God the Son is depicted as Christ as here in The Garden of Earthly Delights by Hieronymus Bosch. New Testament[edit]

Stained glass window of Jesus Christ, Peter and Paul Cathedral, St. Petersburg, Russia. A manuscript variant in John 1:18 (Θεὸν οὐδεὶς ἑώρακεν πώποτε· μονογενὴς Θεὸς ὁ ὢν εἰς τὸν κόλπον τοῦ Πατρὸς, ἐκεῖνος ἐξηγήσατο) has led to translations including "God the One and Only" (NIV, 1984) referring to the Son.[11]

But the term "Son of God" is used to refer to Jesus in the first gospel of Mark at the beginning in verse 1:1 and at its end in chapter 15 verse 39.

Later theological use of this expression (compare Latin: Deus Filius) reflects what came to be the standard interpretation of New Testament references, understood to imply Jesus' Divinity, but with the distinction of his person from another Person of the Trinity called the Father. As such, the title is associated more with the development of the doctrine of the Trinity. A clear expression of a Trinitarian belief is found in Matthew 28:19, "Go, therefore, and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit." John the Evangelist is understood to identify Jesus with the pre-existent Logos or Word, the second person of the Trinity, "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God."[John 1:1]

The term "God the Son" is rejected by antitrinitarians.[12]

See also[edit] Portal icon	Christianity portal God in Christianity Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament Pre-existence of Christ Son of God Sons of God

God the Son From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia See also: Son of God

God resting after creation – Christ depicted as the creator of the world, Byzantine mosaic in Monreale, Sicily. Part of a series on Christianity Jesus depicted as the Good Shepherd Jesus Christ [hide] Jesus in Christianity Virgin birth Ministry Crucifixion Resurrection Bible Foundations [hide] Old Testament New Testament Gospel Canon Books Church Creed New Covenant Theology[hide] God Trinity Father Son Holy Spirit Apologetics Baptism Catholicism Christology History of theology Mission Salvation History Tradition [hide] Mary Apostles Peter Paul Fathers Early Christianity Constantine Councils Augustine East–West Schism Crusades Aquinas Reformation Luther Related topics[hide] Art Holidays (list) Criticism Ecumenism Liturgy Music Other religions Prayer Sermon Symbolism Denominations Groups [hide] Western Adventist Anabaptist Anglican Baptist Calvinist Catholic Charismatic Evangelical Lutheran Methodist Neo-charismatic Protestant Pentecostal Eastern Eastern Orthodox Eastern Catholic Oriental Orthodox Assyrian Nontrinitarian Jehovah's Witness Latter Day Saint Oneness Pentecostal Christian cross Christianity portal v t e God the Son (Greek: Θεός ὁ υἱός) is the second person of the Trinity in Christian theology. The doctrine of the Trinity identifies Jesus as God the Son, united in essence but distinct in person with regard to God the Father and God the Holy Spirit (the first and third persons of the Trinity).

In these teachings, God the Son pre-existed before incarnation, is co-eternal with God the Father (and the Holy Spirit), both before Creation and after the End (see Eschatology). Son of God for some draws attention to his humanity, whereas God the Son refers more generally to his divinity, including his pre-incarnate existence.

Contents [hide] 1 Source of the term 2 Use of the term 3 New Testament 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Source of the term[edit] The term "God the Son" is not found in the Bible,[1][2] but is a term found in later Christian sources.[3] By scribal error the term is in one medieval manuscript, MS No.1985, where Galatians 2:20 has "Son of God" changed to "God the Son".[4]

The term in English follows Latin usage as found in the Athanasian Creed and other texts of the early church:

In Greek "God the Son" is Theos o Iios,[clarification needed Where is this used?] Θεός ὁ υἱός (as distinct from o Iios nominative tu Theu genitive, ὁ υἱός του Θεού, "Son of God"). In Latin "God the Son" is Deus (nominative) Filius (nominative). The term "deus filius" is found in the Athanasian Creed: "Et tamen non tres omnipotentes, sed unus omnipotens. Ita Deus Pater, Deus Filius, Deus [et] Spiritus Sanctus." (distinct from filius Dei genitive "son of God"), but this phrase is also translated "So the Father is God: the Son is God: and the Holy Ghost is God".[5] The distinction holds true in other modern languages apart from English, for example:

In Hebrew "God the Son" (Elohim ha-Ben אלוהים הבן) is used in modern Israeli Christian literature[citation needed] in relation to the "Holy Trinity" (ha-shilush ha-kadosh השילוש הקדוש). As distinct from the term "son of God" (ben Elohim בן אלוהים) as found in the Hebrew New Testament. Use of the term[edit] See also: God in Christianity The term "deus filius" is used in the Athanasian Creed and formulas such as Deus Pater, Deus Filius, Deus Spiritus Sanctus: Et non tres Dii, sed unus est Deus.[6]

The term is used by Saint Augustine in his On the Trinity, for example in discussion of the Son's obedience to God the Father: deo patri deus filius obediens.[7]

Jacques Forget (1910) in the Catholic Encyclopedia article "Holy Ghost" notes that "Among the apologists, Athenagoras mentions the Holy Ghost along with, and on the same plane as, the Father and the Son. 'Who would not be astonished', says he (A Plea for the Christians 10), 'to hear us called atheists, us who confess God the Father, God the Son and the Holy Ghost, and hold them one in power and distinct in order.' "[8] Saint Augustine in Sermon 90 on the New Testament says, "2. For hold this fast as a firm and settled truth, if you would continue Catholics, that God the Father begot God the Son without time, and made Him of a Virgin in time."[9]

The Augsburg Confession (1530) adopted the phrase as Gott der Sohn.[10]

In medieval art God the Son is depicted as Christ as here in The Garden of Earthly Delights by Hieronymus Bosch. New Testament[edit]

Stained glass window of Jesus Christ, Peter and Paul Cathedral, St. Petersburg, Russia. A manuscript variant in John 1:18 (Θεὸν οὐδεὶς ἑώρακεν πώποτε· μονογενὴς Θεὸς ὁ ὢν εἰς τὸν κόλπον τοῦ Πατρὸς, ἐκεῖνος ἐξηγήσατο) has led to translations including "God the One and Only" (NIV, 1984) referring to the Son.[11]

But the term "Son of God" is used to refer to Jesus in the first gospel of Mark at the beginning in verse 1:1 and at its end in chapter 15 verse 39.

Later theological use of this expression (compare Latin: Deus Filius) reflects what came to be the standard interpretation of New Testament references, understood to imply Jesus' Divinity, but with the distinction of his person from another Person of the Trinity called the Father. As such, the title is associated more with the development of the doctrine of the Trinity. A clear expression of a Trinitarian belief is found in Matthew 28:19, "Go, therefore, and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit." John the Evangelist is understood to identify Jesus with the pre-existent Logos or Word, the second person of the Trinity, "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God."[John 1:1]

The term "God the Son" is rejected by antitrinitarians.[12]

See also[edit] Portal icon	Christianity portal God in Christianity Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament Pre-existence of Christ Son of God Sons of God

Jesus (/ˈdʒiːzəs/; Greek: Ἰησοῦς Iesous; 7–2 BC to AD 30–33), also referred to as Jesus of Nazareth or Jesus Christ,[e] is the central figure of Christianity, whom the teachings of most Christian denominations hold to be the Son of God. Christianity and Islam regard Jesus as the awaited Messiah (or Christ) of the Old Testament.

Virtually all modern scholars of antiquity agree that Jesus existed historically,[f] and historians consider the Synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark and Luke) to be the best sources for investigating the historical Jesus.[18][19][20][21] Most scholars agree that Jesus was a Galilean, Jewish rabbi[22] who preached his message orally,[23] was baptized by John the Baptist, and was crucified by the order of the Roman Prefect Pontius Pilate.[24] In the current mainstream view, Jesus was an apocalyptic preacher and the founder of a restoration movement within Judaism, although some prominent scholars argue that he was not apocalyptic.[19][25] After Jesus' death, his followers believed he was resurrected, and the community they formed eventually became the Christian church.[26] The widely accepted calendar era, abbreviated as "AD" or sometimes as "CE", is based on the birth of Jesus.

Christians believe that Jesus has a "unique significance" in the world.[27] Christian doctrines include the beliefs that Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit, was born of a virgin named Mary, performed miracles, founded the Church, died by crucifixion as a sacrifice to achieve atonement, rose from the dead, and ascended into Heaven, whence he will return.[28] Most Christians believe Jesus enables humans to be reconciled to God, and will judge the dead either before or after their bodily resurrection,[29][30][31][32] an event tied to the Second Coming of Jesus in Christian eschatology;[33] though some believe Jesus's role as savior has more existential or societal concerns than the afterlife,[34] and a few notable theologians have suggested that Jesus will bring about a universal reconciliation.[35] The great majority of Christians worship Jesus as the incarnation of God the Son, the second of three persons of a Divine Trinity. A few Christian groups reject Trinitarianism, wholly or partly, as non-scriptural.

In Islam, Jesus (commonly transliterated as Isa) is considered one of God's important prophets and the Messiah.[36] To Muslims, Jesus was a bringer of scripture and was born of a virgin, but was neither the son of God nor the victim of crucifixion. According to the Quran, Jesus was not crucified but was physically raised into Heaven by God. Judaism rejects the Christian and Islamic belief that Jesus was the awaited Messiah, arguing that he did not fulfill the Messianic prophecies in the Tanakh.

Contents [hide] 1 Etymology 2 In the Gospels 2.1 Canonical gospel accounts 2.2 Genealogy and nativity 2.3 Early life, family, and profession 2.4 Baptism and temptation 2.5 Public ministry 2.6 Disciples and followers 2.7 Teachings, preachings, and miracles 2.8 Proclamation as Christ and Transfiguration 2.9 Final week: betrayal, arrest, trial, and death 2.9.1 Activities in Jerusalem 2.9.2 Last Supper 2.9.3 Agony in the Garden, betrayal and arrest 2.9.4 Trials by the Sanhedrin, Herod and Pilate 2.9.5 Crucifixion and entombment 2.10 Resurrection and ascension 3 Historical views 3.1 Judea and Galilee in the 1st century 3.2 Sources 3.3 Chronology 3.4 Historicity of events 3.4.1 Family 3.4.2 Baptism 3.4.3 Ministry 3.4.4 Crucifixion 3.4.5 Resurrection 3.5 Portraits of Jesus 3.6 Language, ethnicity, and appearance 3.7 Christ myth theory 4 Perspectives 4.1 Christian views 4.2 Jewish views 4.3 Islamic views 4.4 Bahá'í views 4.5 Other views 5 Depictions 6 Associated relics 7 See also 8 Bibliography 9 Notes 9.1 Explanatory 9.2 Citations 10 External links Etymology Further information: Jesus (name), Holy Name of Jesus, Name of God in Christianity, Yeshua (name), Yasu and Isa (name) A typical Jew in Jesus' time had only one name, sometimes supplemented with the father's name or the individual's hometown.[19] Thus, in the New Testament, Jesus is commonly referred to as "Jesus of Nazareth"[g] (e.g., Mark 10:47). Jesus' neighbors in Nazareth refer to him as "the carpenter, the son of Mary and brother of James and Joses and Judas and Simon" (Mark 6:3), "the carpenter's son" (Matthew 13:55), or "Joseph's son" (Luke 4:22). In John, the disciple Philip refers to him as "Jesus son of Joseph from Nazareth" (John 1:45).

The name Jesus is derived from the Latin Iesus, a transliteration of the Greek Ἰησοῦς (Iesous).[37] The Greek form is a rendering of the Hebrew ישוע‎ (Yeshua), a variant of the earlier name יהושע‎ (Yehoshua), in English "Joshua".[38][39][40] The name Yeshua appears to have been in use in Judea at the time of the birth of Jesus.[41] The first-century works of historian Flavius Josephus, who wrote in Koine Greek, the same language as that of the New Testament,[42] refer to at least twenty different people with the name Jesus (i.e. Ἰησοῦς).[43] The etymology of Jesus' name in the context of the New Testament is generally given as "Yahweh is salvation".[44]

Isho or Eesho, the Syriac name of Jesus. Since early Christianity, Christians have commonly referred to Jesus as "Jesus Christ".[45] The word Christ is derived from the Greek Χριστός (Christos),[37][46] which is a translation of the Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ (Meshiakh), meaning the "anointed" and usually transliterated into English as "Messiah".[47][48] Christians designate Jesus as Christ because they believe he is the awaited Messiah prophesied in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament). In postbiblical usage, Christ became viewed as a name—one part of "Jesus Christ"—but originally it was a title.[49][50] The term "Christian" (meaning "one who owes allegiance to the person Christ" or simply "follower of Christ") has been in use since the first century.[51][52]

In the Gospels Main article: Life of Jesus in the New Testament See also: New Testament places associated with Jesus and Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament Events in the Life of Jesus according to the Gospels Life of Jesus Early life[show] Ministry[show] Passion[show] Resurrection[show] In rest of the NT[show] Portals: P christianity.svg Christianity Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg Bible

Wikipedia book Book:Life of Jesus v t e The four canonical gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) are the main sources for the biography of Jesus.[53][54] Other parts of the New Testament, such as the Pauline epistles, which were probably written decades before the gospels, also include references to key episodes in his life, such as the Last Supper in 1 Corinthians 11:23–26.[55][56][57] Acts of the Apostles (10:37–38 and 19:4) refers to the early ministry of Jesus and its anticipation by John the Baptist.[58][59] Acts 1:1–11 says more about the Ascension of Jesus (also mentioned in 1 Timothy 3:16) than the canonical gospels do.[60]

Some early Christian and Gnostic groups had separate descriptions of the life and teachings of Jesus that are not included in the New Testament. These include the Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Peter, and the Apocryphon of James, among many other apocryphal writings. Most scholars consider these much later and less reliable accounts than the canonical gospels.[61][62]

Canonical gospel accounts See also: Gospel harmony, Historical reliability of the Gospels and Internal consistency of the New Testament A four-page papyrus manuscript, which is torn in many places A 3rd-century Greek papyrus of the Gospel of Luke The canonical gospels are four accounts, each written by a different author. The first to be written was the Gospel of Mark (written AD 60–75), followed by the Gospel of Matthew (AD 65–85), the Gospel of Luke (AD 65–95), and the Gospel of John (AD 75–100).[63] They often differ in content and in the ordering of events.[64]

Traditionally, Christians believe that the four gospels were written by four evangelists who were close to Jesus:[18] Mark was written by John Mark, an associate of Peter;[65] Matthew was written by one of Jesus' disciples;[18] Luke was written by a companion of Paul, someone mentioned in a few epistles;[18] and John was written by another of Jesus' disciples,[18] in fact part of an inner group of disciples, along with Peter and Jesus' brother James.[66]

Three of them, Matthew, Mark, and Luke, are known as the Synoptic Gospels, from the Greek σύν (syn "together") and ὄψις (opsis "view").[67][68][69] They are similar in content, narrative arrangement, language and paragraph structure.[67][68] Scholars generally agree that it is impossible to find any direct literary relationship between the Synoptic Gospels and the Gospel of John.[70] While the flow of some events (such as Jesus' baptism, transfiguration, crucifixion and interactions with the apostles) are shared among the Synoptic Gospels, incidents such as the transfiguration do not appear in John, which also differs on other matters, such as the Cleansing of the Temple.[71]

Jesus in the Synoptic Gospels	Jesus in the Gospel of John Begins with Jesus' baptism or birth to a virgin.[18]	Begins with creation, with no birth story.[18] Baptized by John the Baptist.[18]	Baptism presupposed but not mentioned.[18] Teaches in parables and aphorisms.[18]	Teaches in long, involved discourses.[18] Teaches primarily about the Kingdom of God, little about himself.[18]	Teaches primarily and extensively about himself.[18] Speaks up for the poor and oppressed.[18]	Says little to nothing about the poor or oppressed.[18] Public ministry lasts one year.[18]	Public ministry lasts three years.[18] Cleansing the Temple occurs late.[18]	Cleansing the Temple is early.[18] Jesus ushers in a new covenant with a last supper.[18]	Jesus washes the disciples' feet.[18] Most scholars agree, following what is known as the "Marcan hypothesis",[72] that the authors of Matthew and Luke used Mark as a source when writing their gospels. Matthew and Luke also share some content not found in Mark. To explain this, many scholars believe that in addition to Mark, another source (commonly called the "Q source") was used by the two authors.[73]

According to a broad scholarly consensus, the Synoptic Gospels, and not John, are the primary sources of historical information about Jesus.[74][75][19] However, not everything contained in the New Testament gospels is considered to be historically reliable.[76] Elements whose historical authenticity is disputed include the Nativity, the Massacre of the Innocents, the Resurrection, the Ascension, some of Jesus' miracles, and the Sanhedrin trial, among others.[77][78][79] Views on the gospels range from their being inerrant descriptions of the life of Jesus[80] to their providing little historical information about his life beyond the basics.[81][82]

The Synoptics emphasize different aspects of Jesus. In Mark, Jesus is the Son of God whose mighty works demonstrate the presence of God's Kingdom.[65] He is a tireless wonder worker, the servant of both God and man.[83] This short gospel records few of Jesus' words or teachings.[65] The Gospel of Matthew emphasizes that Jesus is the fulfillment of God's will as revealed in the Old Testament, and he is the Lord of the Church.[84] He is the kingly Messiah, referred to repeatedly as "king" and "Son of David."[83] A noteworthy feature of this gospel are the five discourses, collections of teachings on particular themes, including the Sermon on the Mount.[84] Luke presents Jesus as the divine-human savior who shows compassion to the needy.[85] He is the friend of sinners and outcasts, come to seek and save the lost.[83] This gospel includes Jesus' most beloved parables, such as the Good Samaritan and the Prodigal Son.[85]

The Synoptics and John agree on the main outline of Jesus' life.[86] John the Baptist precedes Jesus, their ministries overlap, and John witnesses to Jesus' identity.[86] Jesus teaches and performs miracles, at least partly in Galilee.[86] He then visits Jerusalem, where the leaders have him crucified, and he is buried.[86] After his tomb is found empty on Sunday, the risen Jesus presents himself to his followers.[86]

The prologue to the Gospel of John identifies Jesus as an incarnation of the divine Word (Logos).[87] As the Word, Jesus was eternally present with God, active in all creation, and the source of humanity's moral and spiritual nature.[87] With this prologue, the evangelist establishes that Jesus is not only greater than any past human prophet but greater than any prophet could be. He not only speaks God's Word; he is God's Word.[88] In the Gospel of John, Jesus reveals his divine role publicly. Here his is the Bread of Life, the Light of the World, the True Vine and more.[83]

In general, the authors of the New Testament showed little interest in an absolute chronology of Jesus or in synchronizing the episodes of his life with the secular history of the age.[89] As stated in John 21:25, the gospels do not claim to provide an exhaustive list of the events in the life of Jesus.[90] The accounts were primarily written as theological documents in the context of early Christianity, with timelines as a secondary consideration.[91] One manifestation of the gospels as theological documents rather than historical chronicles is that they devote about one third of their text to just seven days, namely the last week of the life of Jesus in Jerusalem, referred to as the Passion.[92] Although the gospels do not provide enough details to satisfy the demands of modern historians regarding exact dates, it is possible to draw from them a general picture of the life story of Jesus.[76][89][91]

Genealogy and nativity Main articles: Genealogy of Jesus and Nativity of Jesus A Nativity scene; men and animals surround Mary and newborn Jesus, who are covered in light Adoration of the Shepherds by Gerard van Honthorst, 1622. Matthew and Luke each offer a genealogy of Jesus. Matthew traces Jesus' ancestry to Abraham through David. Luke traces Jesus' ancestry through Adam to God.[93]

Matthew and Luke each describe Jesus' nativity (or birth), especially that Jesus was born of a virgin in Bethlehem in fulfillment of prophecy. Luke's account emphasizes events before the birth of Jesus and centers on Mary, while Matthew's mostly covers those after the birth and centers on Joseph.[94][95][96] Both accounts state that Jesus was born to Joseph and Mary, his betrothed, in Bethlehem, and both support the doctrine of the virgin birth, according to which Jesus was miraculously conceived by the Holy Spirit in Mary's womb when she was still a virgin.[97][98][99]

In Matthew, Joseph is troubled because Mary, his betrothed, is pregnant (Matthew 1:19–20), but in the first of Joseph's three dreams an angel assures him not to be afraid to take Mary as his wife, because her child was conceived by the Holy Spirit.[100] In Matthew 2:1–12, wise men or Magi from the East bring gifts to the young Jesus as the King of the Jews. Herod hears of Jesus' birth and, wanting him killed, orders the murders of male infants in Bethlehem. But an angel warns Joseph in his second dream, and the family flees to Egypt—later to return and settle in Nazareth.[100][101][102]

In Luke 1:31–38 Mary learns from the angel Gabriel that she will conceive and bear a child called Jesus through the action of the Holy Spirit.[95][97] When Mary is due to give birth, she and Joseph travel from Nazareth to Joseph's ancestral home in Bethlehem to register in the census ordered by Caesar Augustus. While there Mary gives birth to Jesus, and as they have found no room in the inn, she places the newborn in a manger (Luke 2:1–7). An angel announces the birth to some shepherds, who go to Bethlehem to see Jesus, and subsequently spread the news abroad (Luke 2:8–20). After the presentation of Jesus at the Temple, Joseph, Mary and Jesus return to Nazareth.[95][97]

Early life, family, and profession Main article: Child Jesus See also: Return of the family of Jesus to Nazareth and Unknown years of Jesus

12-year-old Jesus found in the temple depicted by James Tissot Jesus' childhood home is identified in the gospels of Luke and Matthew as the town of Nazareth in Galilee where he lived with his family. Although Joseph appears in descriptions of Jesus' childhood, no mention is made of him thereafter.[103] His other family members—his mother, Mary, his brothers James, Joses (or Joseph), Judas and Simon and his unnamed sisters—are mentioned in the gospels and other sources.[104][105]

In Mark, Jesus comes into conflict with his neighbors and family.[106] Jesus' mother and brothers come to get him (3:31–35) because people are saying that he's crazy (3:21). Jesus responds that his followers are his true family. In John, Mary follows Jesus to his crucifixion, and he expresses concern over her well-being (19:25–27).

Jesus is called a τέκτων (tekton) in Mark 6:3, traditionally understood as carpenter but could cover makers of objects in various materials, including builders.[107][108] The gospels indicate that Jesus could read, paraphrase, and debate scripture, but this does not imply that he received formal scribal training.[109]

Baptism and temptation Main articles: Baptism of Jesus and Temptation of Christ

Trevisani's depiction of the baptism of Jesus, with the Holy Spirit descending from Heaven as a dove The Synoptic accounts of Jesus' baptism are all preceded by information about John the Baptist.[110][111][112] They show John preaching penance and repentance for the remission of sins and encouraging the giving of alms to the poor (Luke 3:11) as he baptized people in the area of the River Jordan around Perea and foretells (Luke 3:16) the arrival of someone "more powerful" than he.[113][114]

In Matthew 3:14, upon meeting Jesus, the Baptist says "I need to be baptized by you", but Jesus persuades John to baptize him nonetheless.[115] After he does so and Jesus emerges from the water, the sky opens and a voice from Heaven states, "This is my Son, the Beloved, with whom I am well pleased" (Matthew 3:17). The Holy Spirit then descends upon Jesus as a dove.[113][114][115] This is one of two events described in the gospels where a voice from Heaven calls Jesus "Son", the other being the Transfiguration.[116][117] In Luke, the Holy Spirit descends as a dove after everyone has been baptized and Jesus is praying (Luke 3:21-22).

After the baptism, the Synoptic Gospels describe the temptation of Christ, in which Jesus resisted temptations from the devil while fasting for forty days and nights in the Judaean Desert.[118][119] Jesus' baptism and temptation serve as preparation for his public ministry.[120]

The Gospel of John leaves out Jesus' baptism and temptation.[121] Here, John the Baptist testifies that he saw the Spirit descend on Jesus (John 1:32).[114][122] John publicly proclaims Jesus as the sacrificial Lamb of God, and some of John's followers become disciples of Jesus.[75]

Public ministry Main article: Ministry of Jesus Jesus sits atop a mount, preaching to a crowd A 19th-century painting depicting the Sermon on the Mount, by Carl Bloch The Synoptics depict two distinct geographical settings in Jesus' ministry. The first takes place north of Judea in Galilee, where Jesus conducts a successful ministry; and the second shows Jesus rejected and killed when he travels to Jerusalem. Notably, Jesus forbids those who recognize his identity to speak of it, including people he heals and demons he exorcises (see Messianic Secret).[123]

John depicts Jesus' ministry as largely taking place in and around Jerusalem rather than in Galilee. In this Gospel, Jesus' divine identity is publicly proclaimed and immediately recognized.[88]

Scholars divide the ministry of Jesus into several stages. The Galilean ministry begins when Jesus returns to Galilee from the Judaean Desert after rebuffing the temptation of Satan. Jesus preaches around Galilee, and in Matthew 4:18–20, his first disciples, who will eventually form the core of the early Church, encounter him and begin to travel with him.[112][124] This period includes the Sermon on the Mount, one of Jesus' major discourses,[124][125] as well as the calming of the storm, the feeding of the 5,000, walking on water and a number of other miracles and parables.[126] It ends with the Confession of Peter and the Transfiguration.[127][128]

As Jesus travels towards Jerusalem, in the Perean ministry, he returns to the area where he was baptized, about a third of the way down from the Sea of Galilee along the Jordan (John 10:40–42).[129][130] The final ministry in Jerusalem begins with Jesus' triumphal entry into the city on Palm Sunday.[131] In the Synoptic Gospels, during that week Jesus drives the money changers from the Temple and Judas bargains to betray him. This period culminates in the Last Supper and the Farewell Discourse.[110][131][132]

Disciples and followers Near the beginning of his ministry, Jesus appoints twelve apostles. In Matthew and Mark, despite Jesus only briefly requesting that they join him, Jesus' first four apostles, who were fishermen, are described as immediately consenting, and abandoning their nets and boats to do so (Matthew 4:18–22, Mark 1:16–20). In John, Jesus' first two apostles were disciples of John the Baptist. The Baptist sees Jesus and calls him the Lamb of God; the two hear this and follow Jesus.[133][134] In addition to the Twelve Apostles, the opening of the passage of the Sermon on the Plain identifies a much larger group of people as disciples (Luke 6:17). Also, in Luke 10:1–16 Jesus sends seventy or seventy-two of his followers in pairs to prepare towns for his prospective visit. They are instructed to accept hospitality, heal the sick and spread the word that the Kingdom of God is coming.[135]

In Mark, the disciples are notably obtuse. They fail to understand Jesus' miracles (Mark 4:35–41, 6:52), his parables (Mark 4:13), or what "rising from the dead" would mean (Mark 9:9–10). When Jesus is later arrested, they desert him (see below).[123]

Teachings, preachings, and miracles Main articles: Sermon on the Mount, Parables of Jesus and Miracles of Jesus See also: Sermon on the Plain, Five Discourses of Matthew, Farewell Discourse and Olivet Discourse

"Christ and the Rich Young Ruler" by Heinrich Hofmann, 1889 In the Synoptics, Jesus teaches extensively, often in parables, about the Kingdom of God (or, in Matthew, the Kingdom of Heaven).[136] The Kingdom is described as both imminent (e.g., Mark 1:15) [137] and already present in the ministry of Jesus: "You won't be able to say, 'Here it is!' or 'It's over there!' For the Kingdom of God is within you."(Luke 17:21) [138] Matthew’s summary of Jesus’ ministry includes healing sickness and disease, as well as performing exorcisms: “And Jesus was going about in all Galilee, teaching in their synagogues, and proclaiming the gospel of the kingdom, and healing every kind of disease and every kind of sickness among the people” (Matt. 4:23) [136] Jesus promises inclusion in the Kingdom for those who accept his message, provided they become as children and give up riches (Mark 10:13–27).[136]

Jesus calls people to repent their sins and to devote themselves completely to God.[19] Jesus tells his followers to adhere strictly to Jewish law, although he is perceived by some to have broken the law himself, for example regarding the Sabbath.[19] When asked what the greatest commandment is, Jesus replies: "You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind ... And a second is like it: ‘You shall love your neighbor as yourself" (Matthew 22:37–39). Other ethical teachings of Jesus include loving one's enemies, refraining from hatred and lust, and turning the other cheek (Matthew 5:21–44).[139]

John's Gospel presents the teachings of Jesus not merely as his own preaching, but as divine revelation. John the Baptist, for example, states in John 3:34: "He whom God has sent speaks the words of God, for he gives the Spirit without measure." In John 7:16 Jesus says, "My teaching is not mine but his who sent me." He asserts the same thing in John 14:10: "Do you not believe that I am in the Father and the Father is in me? The words that I say to you I do not speak on my own; but the Father who dwells in me does his works."[140][141]

Jesus, his head surrounded by a halo, puts his hands on a leper, thereby healing him. Jesus cleansing a leper – medieval mosaic from the Monreale Cathedral In the gospels, the approximately thirty parables form about one third of Jesus' recorded teachings.[140][142] The parables appear within longer sermons and at other places in the narrative.[143] They often contain symbolism, and usually relate the physical world to the spiritual.[144][145] Common themes in these tales include the kindness and generosity of God and the perils of transgression.[146] Some of his parables, such as the Prodigal Son (Luke 15:11–32), are relatively simple, while others, such as the Growing Seed (Mark 4:26–29), are more abstruse.[147]

In the gospel accounts, Jesus devotes a large portion of his ministry performing miracles, especially healings.[148] The miracles can be classified into two main categories: healing miracles and nature miracles.[149] The healing miracles include cures for physical ailments, exorcisms, and resurrections of the dead.[150] The nature miracles show Jesus' power over nature, and include turning water into wine, walking on water, and calming a storm, among others. Jesus states that his miracles are from a divine source. When Jesus' opponents accuse him of performing exorcisms by the power of Beelzebul, the prince of demons, Jesus counters that he performs them by the "Spirit of God" (Matthew 12:28) or "finger of God" (Luke 11:20).[19][151]

In John, Jesus' miracles are described as "signs", performed to prove his mission and divinity.[152][153] However, in the Synoptics, when asked to give miraculous signs to prove his authority, Jesus refuses.[152] Also, in the Synoptic Gospels, the crowds regularly respond to Jesus' miracles with awe and press on him to heal their sick. In John's Gospel, Jesus is presented as unpressured by the crowds, who often respond to his miracles with trust and faith.[154] One characteristic shared among all miracles of Jesus in the gospel accounts is that he performed them freely and never requested or accepted any form of payment.[155] The gospel episodes that include descriptions of the miracles of Jesus also often include teachings, and the miracles themselves involve an element of teaching.[156][157] Many of the miracles teach the importance of faith. In the cleansing of ten lepers and the raising of Jairus' daughter, for instance, the beneficiaries are told that their healing was due to their faith.[158][159]

Proclamation as Christ and Transfiguration Main articles: Confession of Peter and Transfiguration of Jesus

The Transfiguration of Jesus, depicted by Carl Bloch At about the middle of each of the three Synoptic Gospels, two related episodes mark a turning point in the narrative: the Confession of Peter and the Transfiguration of Jesus.[128][160] These events mark the beginnings of the gradual disclosure of the identity of Jesus to his disciples and his prediction of his own suffering and death.[116][117][128]

In his Confession, Peter tells Jesus, "You are the Messiah, the Son of the living God."[161][162][163] Jesus affirms that Peter's confession is divinely revealed truth.[164][165]

In the Transfiguration (Matthew 17:1–9, Mark 9:2–8, and Luke 9:28–36),[116][117][128] Jesus takes Peter and two other apostles up an unnamed mountain, where "he was transfigured before them, and his face shone like the sun, and his clothes became dazzling white."[166] A bright cloud appears around them, and a voice from the cloud says, "This is my Son, the Beloved; with him I am well pleased; listen to him" (Matthew 17:1–9).[116] In 2 Peter 1:16-18, Peter himself affirms that he witnessed Jesus' Transfiguration, stating that the apostolic tradition is based on eyewitness testimony.[167]

The Transfiguration is one of the important events that the Gospel of John omits.[168]

Final week: betrayal, arrest, trial, and death Main article: Passion Week The description of the last week of the life of Jesus (often called Passion Week) occupies about one third of the narrative in the canonical gospels,[92] starting with Jesus' Triumphal entry into Jerusalem and ending with his Crucifixion.[110][131]

Activities in Jerusalem Main articles: Triumphal entry into Jerusalem, Cleansing of the Temple and Bargain of Judas Jesus, riding a donkey colt, rides towards Jerusalem. A large crowd greets him outside the walls. A painting of Jesus' final entry into Jerusalem, by Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1897 In the Synoptics, the last week in Jerusalem is the conclusion of the journey through Perea and Judea that Jesus began in Galilee.[131] Jesus rides a young donkey into Jerusalem, reflecting an oracle from the Book of Zechariah in which the Jews' humble king enters Jerusalem this way (Zechariah 9:9).[65] People along the way lay cloaks and small branches of trees (known as palm fronds) in front of him and sing part of Psalm 118:25–26.[169][170][171]

Jesus next expels the money changers from the Temple, accusing them of turning it into a den of thieves through their commercial activities. Jesus then prophesies about the coming destruction, including false prophets, wars, earthquakes, celestial disorders, persecution of the faithful, the appearance of an "abomination of desolation," and unendurable tribulations (Mark 13:1–23). The mysterious "Son of Man," he says, will dispatch angels to gather the faithful from all parts of the earth (Mark 13:24–27). Jesus warns that these wonders will occur in the lifetimes of the hearers (Mark 13:28–32).[123] In John, the Cleansing of the Temple occurs at the beginning of Jesus' ministry instead of the end John 2:13–16.[88]

Also in the Synoptics, Jesus comes into conflict with the Jewish elders, such as when they question his authority, and he criticizes them and calls them hypocrites.[169][171] Judas Iscariot, one of the twelve apostles, secretly strikes a bargain with the Jewish elder, agreeing to betray Jesus to them for 30 silver coins.[172][173]

The Gospel of John recounts of two other feasts in which Jesus taught in Jerusalem before the Passion Week (John 7:1–10:42).[106] He returns near Jerusalem, in Bethany, when he raises Lazarus from the dead, which increases the tension between him and the authorities.[131] The authorithies then conspire to kill him (John 11).[106] Raising Lazarus is Jesus' most potent sign yet.[88] In Bethany, Mary of Bethany anoints Jesus' feet, foreshadowing his entombment.[174] Jesus then makes his Messianic entry into Jerusalem.[106] The cheering crowds greeting Jesus as he enters Jerusalem add to the animosity between him and the establishment.[131] In John, Jesus has already cleansed the Temple during an earlier Passover visit to Jerusalem. John next recounts Jesus' Last Supper with his disciples.[106]

Last Supper Main article: Last Supper See also: Jesus predicts his betrayal, Denial of Peter and Last Supper in Christian art A depiction of the Last Supper. Jesus sits in the center, his apostles gathered around on either side of him. The Last Supper, depicted in this 16th-century painting by Juan de Juanes The Last Supper is the final meal that Jesus shares with his 12 apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion. The Last Supper is mentioned in all four canonical gospels; Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians (11:23–26) also refers to it.[56][57][175] During the meal, Jesus predicts that one of his apostles will betray him.[176] Despite each Apostle's assertion that he would not betray him, Jesus reiterates that the betrayer would be one of those present. Matthew 26:23–25 and John 13:26–27 specifically identify Judas as the traitor.[56][57][176]

In the Synoptics, Jesus takes bread, breaks it, and gives it to the disciples, saying, "This is my body, which is given for you". He then has them all drink from a cup, saying, "This cup that is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood" (Luke 22:19–20).[56][177] The Christian sacrament or ordinance of the Eucharist is based on these events.[178] Although the Gospel of John does not include a description of the bread-and-wine ritual during the Last Supper, most scholars agree that John 6:58–59 (the Bread of Life Discourse) has a eucharistic character and resonates with the institution narratives in the Synoptic Gospels and in the Pauline writings on the Last Supper.[179]

In all four gospels, Jesus predicts that Peter will deny knowledge of him three times before the rooster crows the next morning.[180][181] In Luke and John, the prediction is made during the Supper (Luke 22:34, John 22:34). In Matthew and Mark, the prediction is made after the Supper; Jesus also predicts that all his disciples will desert him (Matthew 26:31–34, Mark 14:27–30).[182] The Gospel of John provides the only account of Jesus washing his disciples' feet before the meal.[101] John also includes a long sermon by Jesus, preparing his disciples (now without Judas) for his departure. Chapters 14–17 of the Gospel of John are known as the Farewell Discourse and are a significant source of Christological content.[183][184]

Agony in the Garden, betrayal and arrest Main articles: Agony in the Garden, Kiss of Judas and Arrest of Jesus Judas kisses Jesus, and soldiers rush to seize the latter. A 17th-century depiction of the kiss of Judas and arrest of Jesus, by Caravaggio After the Last Supper, Jesus takes a walk to pray, and then Judas and the authorities come and arrest him.

In Mark, they go to the garden of Gethsemane,[182] where Jesus prays to be spared his coming ordeal. His disciples fall asleep while they should be watching (Mark 37–41). Then Judas comes with an armed mob, sent by the chief priests, scribes and elders.[123] He kisses Jesus to identify him to the crowd, which then arrests Jesus.[182] In an attempt to stop them, one of Jesus' disciples uses a sword to cut off the ear of a man in the crowd.[182] After Jesus' arrest, his disciples go into hiding, and Peter, when questioned, thrice denies knowing Jesus.[182] After the third denial, he hears the rooster crow and recalls the prediction as Jesus turns to look at him. Peter then weeps bitterly.[180] In Matthew, Jesus criticizes the disciple's attack with the sword, enjoining his disciples not to resist his arrest. He says, "All who take the sword will perish by the sword" (Matthew 26:52). In Luke, Jesus goes to the Mount of Olives to pray,[182] and Jesus miraculously heals the ear that a disciple severed (Luke 22:51). In John, Jesus doesn't pray to be spared his crucifixion,[185] as the gospel portrays him as scarcely touched by such human weakness.[185] The people who arrest him are soldiers and Jewish officers (John 18:3). Instead of being betrayed by a kiss, Jesus proclaims his identity, and when he does, the soldiers and officers fall to the ground (John 18:4–7). The gospel identifies Peter as the disciple who used the sword, and Jesus rebukes him for it (John 18:10–11). Trials by the Sanhedrin, Herod and Pilate Main articles: Sanhedrin trial of Jesus, Pilate's Court, Jesus at Herod's Court and Crown of Thorns See also: Jesus, King of the Jews, What is truth? and Ecce homo After his arrest, Jesus is taken to the Sanhedrin, a Jewish judicial body.[186] The gospel accounts differ on the details of the trials.[187] In Matthew 26:57, Mark 14:53 and Luke 22:54, Jesus is taken to the house of the high priest, Caiaphas, where he is mocked and beaten that night. Early the next morning, the chief priests and scribes lead Jesus away into their council.[188][189][190] John 18:12–14 states that Jesus is first taken to Annas, Caiaphas' father-in-law, and then to the high priest.[188][189][190]

A depiction of Jesus' public trial Ecce homo! Antonio Ciseri's 1871 depiction of Pontius Pilate presenting Jesus to the public During the trials Jesus speaks very little, mounts no defense, and gives very infrequent and indirect answers to the priests' questions, prompting an officer to slap him. In Matthew 26:62 Jesus' unresponsiveness leads Caiaphas to ask him, "Have you no answer?"[188][189][190] In Mark 14:61 the high priest then asks Jesus, "Are you the Messiah, the Son of the Blessed One?" Jesus replies, "I am", and then predicts the coming of the Son of Man.[19] This provokes Caiaphas to tear his own robe in anger and to accuse Jesus of blasphemy. In Matthew and Luke, Jesus' answer is more ambiguous:[19][191] in Matthew 26:64 he responds, "You have said so", and in Luke 22:70 he says, "You say that I am".[192][193]

They take Jesus to Pilate's Court, but Pilate proves extremely reluctant to condemn Jesus, so it is the Jewish elders who are to blame for Jesus' crucifixion.[194] The Jewish elders ask the Roman governor Pontius Pilate to judge and condemn Jesus, accusing him of claiming to be the King of the Jews.[190] The use of the word "king" is central to the discussion between Jesus and Pilate. In John 18:36 Jesus states, "My kingdom is not from this world", but he does not unequivocally deny being the King of the Jews.[195][196] In Luke 23:7–15 Pilate realizes that Jesus is a Galilean, and thus comes under the jurisdiction of Herod Antipas.[197][198] Pilate sends Jesus to Herod to be tried,[199] but Jesus says almost nothing in response to Herod's questions. Herod and his soldiers mock Jesus, put an expensive robe on him to make him look like a king, and return him to Pilate,[197] who then calls together the Jewish elders and announces that he has "not found this man guilty".[199]

Observing a Passover custom of the time, Pilate allows one prisoner chosen by the crowd to be released. He gives the people a choice between Jesus and a murderer called Barabbas. Persuaded by the elders (Matthew 27:20), the mob chooses to release Barabbas and crucify Jesus.[200] Pilate writes a sign in Hebrew, Latin, and Greek that reads "Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews" (abbreviated as INRI in depictions) to be affixed to Jesus' cross (John 19:19–20),[201] then scourges Jesus and sends him to be crucified. The soldiers place a Crown of Thorns on Jesus' head and ridicule him as the King of the Jews. They beat and taunt him before taking him to Calvary,[202] also called Golgotha, for crucifixion.[188][190][203]

Crucifixion and entombment Main articles: Crucifixion of Jesus and Burial of Jesus See also: Sayings of Jesus on the cross and Crucifixion eclipse A depiction of Jesus on the cross Pietro Perugino's depiction of the Crucifixion as Stabat Mater, 1482 Jesus' crucifixion is described in all four canonical gospels. After the trials, Jesus is led to Calvary carrying his cross; the route traditionally thought to have been taken is known as the Via Dolorosa. The three Synoptic Gospels indicate that Simon of Cyrene assists him, having been compelled by the Romans to do so.[204][205] In Luke 23:27–28 Jesus tells the women in the multitude of people following him not to weep for him but for themselves and their children.[204] At Calvary, Jesus is offered a concoction usually offered as a painkiller. According to Matthew and Mark, he refuses it.[204][205]

The soldiers then crucify Jesus and cast lots for his clothes. Above Jesus' head on the cross is Pilate's inscription, "Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews"; soldiers and passersby mock him about it. Jesus is crucified between two convicted thieves, one of whom rebukes Jesus, while the other defends him.[204][206] The Roman soldiers break the two thieves' legs (a procedure designed to hasten death in a crucifixion), but they do not break those of Jesus, as he is already dead. In John 19:34, one soldier pierces Jesus' side with a lance, and blood and water flow out.[207] In Matthew 27:51–54, when Jesus dies, the heavy curtain at the Temple is torn and an earthquake breaks open tombs. Terrified by the events, a Roman centurion states that Jesus was the Son of God.[204][208]

On the same day, Joseph of Arimathea, with Pilate's permission and with Nicodemus' help, removes Jesus' body from the cross, wraps him in a clean cloth, and buries him in a new rock-hewn tomb.[204] In Matthew 27:62–66, on the following day the chief Jewish priests ask Pilate for the tomb to be secured, and with Pilate's permission the priests place seals on the large stone covering the entrance and post a guard.[204][209]

Resurrection and ascension Main articles: Resurrection of Jesus, Resurrection appearances of Jesus and Ascension of Jesus See also: Empty tomb, Great Commission, Second Coming, Resurrection of Jesus in Christian art and Ascension of Jesus in Christian art

Jesus appearing to Mary Magdalene after his resurrection from the dead, depicted by Alexander Andreyevich Ivanov In all four gospels, Mary Magdalene goes to Jesus' tomb on Sunday morning and is surprised to find it empty. Jesus, she learns, has risen from the dead. Despite Jesus' teaching, the disciples hadn't understood that Jesus would rise again.[210] After the discovery of the empty tomb, Jesus makes a series of appearances to the disciples.[60]

In Mark, Salome and a second Mary are with her (Mark 16:1). A young man in a white robe (an angel) tells them that Jesus will meet his disciples in Galilee, as he had told them (referring to Mark 14:28).[65] The gospel then ends abruptly.[123] In Matthew, there's an earthquake when the women discover the tomb, and an angel of the Lord descends from heaven, terrifying the guards.[210] Jesus appears to the eleven remaining disciples in Galilee and commissions them to baptize all nations in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit.[101] In Luke, Mary and the other women meet two angels, and the eleven disciples do not believe their story (Luke 25:1–12).[210] Jesus appears that same day to his disciples in Jerusalem (Luke 24:13–43). Although he appears and vanishes mysteriously, he also eats and lets them touch him to prove that he is not a spirit. He repeats his command to bring his teaching to all nations (Luke 24:51).[211] In John, Mary is alone at first, but Peter and the beloved disciple come and see the tomb as well. Jesus then appears to Mary at the empty tomb.[210] He later appears to the disciples, breathes on them, and gives them the power to forgive and retain sins.[88] In a second visit, he proves to a doubting disciple ("Doubting Thomas") that he is flesh and blood.[88] The catch of 153 fish is a miracle by the Sea of Galilee, after which Jesus encourages Peter to serve his followers.[60][212] Jesus' Ascension into Heaven is described in Acts 1:1–11 and mentioned in 1 Timothy 3:16. In Acts, forty days after the Resurrection, as the disciples look on, "he was lifted up, and a cloud took him out of their sight". 1 Peter 3:22 states that Jesus has "gone into heaven and is at the right hand of God".[60]

The Acts of the Apostles describes several appearances of Jesus in visions after his Ascension. Acts 7:55 describes a vision experienced by Stephen just before his death.[213] On the road to Damascus, the Apostle Paul is converted to Christianity after seeing a blinding light and hearing a voice saying, "I am Jesus, whom you are persecuting" (Acts 9:5).[214] In Acts 9:10–18, Jesus instructs Ananias of Damascus to heal Paul. It is the last conversation with Jesus reported in the Bible until the Book of Revelation,[214] in which a man named John receives a revelation from Jesus concerning the last days,[215] when Jesus is predicted to return victoriously (Revelation 19:11–21).

Historical views Main articles: Historical Jesus and Quest for the historical Jesus See also: Biblical criticism Prior to the Enlightenment, the gospels were usually regarded as accurate historical accounts, but since then scholars have emerged who question the reliability of the gospels and draw a distinction between the Jesus described in the gospels and the Jesus of history.[216] Since the 18th century, three separate scholarly quests for the historical Jesus have taken place, each with distinct characteristics and based on different research criteria, which were often developed during the quest that applied them.[217][218] Scholars have studied and debated a number of issues concerning the historical Jesus, such as his existence, the origins and historical reliability of the gospels and other sources, and the precise portrait of the historical figure.

Approaches to the historical reconstruction of the life of Jesus have varied from the "maximalist" approaches of the 19th century, in which the gospel accounts were accepted as reliable evidence wherever it is possible, to the "minimalist" approaches of the early 20th century, where hardly anything about Jesus was accepted as historical.[219] In the 1950s, as the second quest for the historical Jesus gathered pace, the minimalist approaches faded away, and in the 21st century, minimalists such as Price are a very small minority.[220][221] Although a belief in the inerrancy of the gospels cannot be supported historically, many scholars since the 1980s have held that, beyond the few facts considered to be historically certain, certain other elements of Jesus' life are "historically probable".[220][222][223] Modern scholarly research on the historical Jesus thus focuses on identifying the most probable elements.

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