User talk:Guru historian

/* Abd al-Mu’min: Almohad Empire, 1140-1269tmbc.com.ng */ new section
The circumstances surrounding ‘Abd al-Mu’min’s accession to power after the death of ibn Tumart, founder of the Almohad movement, are still unknown. ‘Abd al-Mu’min did not belong to one of the so-called Almohad tribes (the first to embrace the Mahdi’s doctrine), and furthermore, other members of ibn Tumart’s “entourage” occupied a higher rank and could have claimed rights of succession.

It seems, however, that the fact that he was a relative outsider was an asset rather than a liability, and he was viewed as a compromise candidate among Masmuda chiefs. The support of Abu Hafs ‘Umar al-Hintati, one of the Mahdi’s closest confidants, seems to have been crucial in ensuring that his rise to power progressed smoothly. But loyalty toward the new leader was lukewarm at this early stage, and ‘Abd al-Mu’min had to prove both his political acumen and military skill.

His first military campaigns were aimed at occupying the mountain ranges and encircling the Almoravid capital, avoiding direct clashes on the plains, where the Sanhaja cavalry was proving unbeatable. Control of the Anti- and High Atlas left the regions of Sus and the Draa valley clearly exposed; their populations did not fail to observe the potential danger and recognized Almohad authority. Further north, the conquest of the Middle Atlas and the Tafilalt in 1140–1141 led to the occupation of the Rif, the Taza region, and the Mediterranean littoral.

Abd alMu’min’s military ambitions

‘Abd alMu’min’s military ambitions were not confined to the western Maghrib; he wished to unify all the lands of North Africa between Tunisia and southern Morocco under a single command. The first serious confrontation with the Almoravid army took place near Tlemcen in 1145, and resulted in the defeat of the ruling dynasty and the death of its amir, Tashfin b. ‘Ali. This event signaled the inexorable decline of the Almoravids. In less than two years the main cities of Morocco—Fez, Meknes, and Sale—were taken. Marrakesh fell in 1147, after a prolonged siege. Once control of Morocco had been achieved, ‘Abd al-Mu’min turned his attention toTunisia (known in Arabic sources as Ifriqiya).

The Norman kingdom of Sicily did not conceal its territorial ambitions in the area, and the Almohad caliph saw this campaign as a kind of jihad. The Qal’a, the capital of the Hammadi kingdom, was captured in 1152. The Arab tribes that had assisted the local Sanhaja Berbers were pushed back toward the region of Setif in 1153. The eastern campaign had to be interrupted, however, because various outbreaks of dissent in Morocco required the attention of the caliph. It was resumed in 1159. The last remnants of the Zirid kingdom were suppressed and the Normans, then occupying Mahdiyya and other coastal enclaves, were repelled.

The creation of a North African empire was the paramount objective of ‘Abd al-Mu’min’s foreign policy. This goal was hindered, however, by the impossibility of concentrating military efforts on this campaign. Instability in Morocco as a result of sporadic rebellions, mostly instigated by the Almohad hierarchy, and the perennial issue of the war in Muslim Spain meant that imperial troops had to fight on several fronts at the same time. Domestic policy was not exempt from difficulties, either. The caliph’s attempts to turn the empire into a hereditary monarchy proved successful, but he was forced to make important concessions to the Almohad chiefs. ‘Abd al-Mu’min’s successors (sayyids) served as provincial governors, but their decisions were closely monitored by advisers selected from among the Almohad shaykhs.

The reign of Abu Yusuf Ya’qub

al-Mansur(1184–1199) was equally turbulent. As soon as he became caliph, one of the longest anti-Almohad rebellions broke out in the eastern fringes of the empire. Its leaders belonged to a family of former Almoravid officials, the Banu Ghaniyya, who had settled in Tunisia after being expelled from the Balearic Islands, where they had served as governors.

The unrest increased even further as a result of attempts, on the part of local Sanhaja, to revive the Hammadid kingdom in eastern Algeria. The seizure of Bougie in 1184 put an end to Sanhaja ambitions. The Banu Ghaniyya insurrection was more difficult to check for two reasons: a) long distances forced the Almohads to rely on the navy and, although they could take coastal towns quite easily, they could not pursue their punitive strikes further inland, precisely where the rebels sought refuge, and b) the Banu Ghaniyya managed to obtain the support of the Arab tribes of the region, such as the Judham and Riyah, thus notably increasing their military capability.

The defeat of ‘Ali ibn Ghaniyya

The defeat of ‘Ali ibn Ghaniyya near Gafsa in 1187 was a severe blow to the rebels, but it did not seal their fate. His descendants managed to regroup their troops and establish a new base in the central Maghrib. They even occupied the town of Sijilmasa during the reign of Muhammad al-Nasir (1199–1214) but were finally crushed in the Libyan region of Jabal Nafusa in 1209–1210. Reprisals against the Arab tribes of Ifriqiya had important repercussions, especially in the demographic make-up of North Africa. They were “evicted” and resettled in the region of Tamesna, on the Atlantic coast of Morocco. This measure was not only momentous demographically, but also politically. From then onward, Almohad caliphs partly recruited their armies from these Arab contingents, to counterbalance the weight of Berber tribes, notorious for their volatility.

Defeat by the Christians in the battle of Navas de Tolosa (Spain) in 1212

Defeat by the Christians in the battle of Navas de Tolosa (Spain) in 1212 was the first sign of the process of imperial fragmentation. Military weakness, infighting within the ruling elite, and the abandonment of the Almohad doctrine by al-Ma’mun (1227–1232) marked the first half of the thirteenth century, ultimately leading to the dissolution of the empire into three political entities, roughly equivalent to present-day Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia.

History Lodge Guru historian (talk) 12:30, 23 November 2021 (UTC)