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CHAPTER ONE THE POLITICS OF CONFLICT OVER RESOURCES IN THE NIGER DELTA: OIL IN PERSPECTIVE

INTRODUCTION The Nigerian government has failed woefully to keep faith with the social contract between it and the people of the Niger Delta, the result of such breach of contract influenced major actors like Ken Saro-wiwa, Asari Dokubo, and major groups as Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta People (MEND), Niger Delta Volunteer Force (NDVF) even Niger Delta Avengers (NDA) though its activities and timing is questionable see chapter four.Nigeria’s Niger delta region is not only home to the greater part of Africa’s largest mangrove forest, but also the source of Nigeria’s oil wealth. Constituting amazing network of creeks, and an aquatic splendour comprising marine,brackish and fresh water ecosystems, lie the operational bases of chain of events of ethnic militia and insurgent organizations dedicated to the socio-economic emancipation of the Niger delta people, whichever angle one may look at it, either the incompetence of Nigeria federal government or the insurgence activities of the people, The root cause of the whole Niger Delta crisis is injustice,the truth will always come to light. The conspiracies of the old colonial masters, in tandem with the different international oil companies, IOCs, Shell,Mobil,Chevron,Total,Agip etc.and the activities of our dictatorial and uncaring federal government caused this situation we found ourselves, in not heeding to appeals for the basic rights of the minority oil producing nations, they have caused the manifestations of violent rebellions from the people. Isaac Boro started it in the 60s and Ken Saro-Wiwa amplified it in the 90s, activities of both legends will be discussed later. The birth of democracy in 1999 raised hopes and provided leeway for groups to expand and operate, also gave hope for an effective way to solve the Niger Delta imbroglio. As noted by (Omotola 2006), such hopes are not misplaced given the fact that democracy is generally considered to be naturally imbued with conflict management devices such as freedom of expression by the people and political space for democratic dissensions,deliberations and consensus. The chapter tend to give a conceptual characterization of the Niger Delta region,the discovery of oil and subsequent actions that followed,reactions of the local militia groups.

CONCEPTUALISING THE NIGER DELTA REGION The Niger-Delta is a geographical area in Nigeria which has two words the Niger and Delta. The two words has five letter each, and Delta is the fourth letter in the Greek alphabet. It actually means an area of lowland shaped like equilateral triangle where a river divides intotwo branches towards the sea.It’s of great importance to note that the 4th letter is very indivisible and indispensable. Indivisible for the fact that it cannot be substituted or replaced and indispensable for the fact that without it the entire spectrum of the great alphabets will be nonexistence.It’s actually the letter that gives light meaning to the others and without light, man will be groping in outer darkness. The true meaning of Delta is light, so the 4th Greek letter is light, this is the spiritual meaning of Delta. This actually confirms the Holy Scripture where on the 4th day almighty God created the body of lights to give lights to the earth. “And God made two great lights: the greater light to rule the dayand the lesser light to rule the night, He made the stars also (KJV, Gen1:16). It was the creation of these lights that made it possible to distinguish the day from the night.Its high time these fundamentals are known,imbibed and inculcated into us that our steps can be truly traced; where we have erred or gone wrong and make amends in order for us to fulfil our destiny here on earth and in eternity, More so,This five letter word is also associated with the riches in the sea. Nigeria, our father land is derived from the word Niger, as Flora Shaw called it Niger area meaning black area. Let it be understood that without the name Niger, there won’t be any Nigeria as long as name is concerned. The basic meaning of this revelation is that the foundation of our father’s land, Nigeria, is in the Niger. Nigeria has its roots in the Niger and in its geographical area the Niger-Delta. The name a father gives his child is what the child is known for, this speaks volumes of the conditions surrounding his birth, and gives insight of the possibility of his future. I wish to re-echo that without Niger and Niger –Delta area, there won’t be any Nigeria as an international and world entity. With this background knowledge, it becomes absolute necessary to note that all the area called and known as Niger-Delta is a ‘fragile baby’ that has to be handled with great care. Thus, Niger-Delta is akin to a miniature Nigeria. Its survival is the survival of Nigeria. The commitment to the progress of the Niger-Delta region is the commitment to the progress of Nigeria. Without the total and comprehensive development of the Niger-Delta region, Nigeria cannot and will never realize her visions anddreams.Before the actual crisis in context is evaluated there is a need to give a geographical description of the region. Takena Tamuno, an authority on Nigerian history and an outstanding scholar from the region, stated that linguistically, ethnographically, culturally, the Niger Delta of the pre-crude oil and gas era, comprised a bewildering mix of ethnic groups among which the communities of ljaw (in eastern, western and central Niger Delta), the Ogoni, Itsekiri, Urhobo, Isoko, lkwerre and Delta lgbo hit more headlines and covered electronic waves more than others.(Tamuno, 1999).The Niger Delta comprised about 70,000 sq. km. This contrasts with the 1995 World Bank Technical Report which gives the total land area of the Niger Delta as 20,000 sq. km located in south eastern Nigeria (World Bank, 1995).

THE PEOPLE The very rich culture and heritage of the region is based on the presence of about 40 different ethnic groups speaking 250 languages and dialects. The numerous ethnic groups include Ijaws, Ogonis, Ikwerres, Etches, Ekpeyes, Ogbas, Engennes, Obolos, Isoko, Nembes, Okrikans, Kalabaris, Urhobos, Itsekiris, Igbos, Ika-Igbos, Ndoni, Oron,Ibeno, and Yorubas, Ibibios, Annangs and Efiks, Other groups include Efiks,Bekwarras,Binis, etc.The heritage of the people is reflected in modes of dressing, marriages, traditional culture and festivals.The traditional economic activities of the communities fall into two main categories: Land based type on the drier parts at the northern end of the Delta, which includes farming, fishing, collecting and processing palm fruits, as well as hunting Water based type of economy at the southern parts of the Delta including fishing and trading, with a less diversified economy. The diverse ethnic groups living in the region have a long history of participation in trade and travel, which has led to the widespread exchange of ideas and art forms, among the various groups and with the Western nations. The region is situated in the southern part of Nigeria and bordered to the south by the Atlantic Ocean and to the East by Cameroon. The Delta region has a steadily growing population estimated to be over 30 million people as of 2005, accounting for more than 23% of Nigeria's total population. The population density is also among the highest in the world with 265 people per kilometre-squared (reference NDDC). The region comprises nine of Nigeria's constituent states (see Table 1.1 population projection high for the Niger Delta States. NDR States Land area(square kilometers) Population 2006 2010 2015 2020 Abia 4,877 3,230,000 3,763,000 4,383,000 5,106,000 AkwaIbom 6,866 3,343,000 3,895,000 4,573,000 5,285,000 Bayelsa 11,007 1,710,000 1,992,000 2,320,000 2,703,000 Cross River 21,930 2,763,000 3,187,000 3,712,000 4,325,000 Delta 17,163 3,594,000 4,186,000 4,877,000 5,861,000 Edo 19,698 3,018,000 3,516,000 4,096,000 4,871,000 Imo 5,165 3,342,000 3,895,000 4,535,000 5,283,000 Ondo 15,086 3,025,000 3,524,000 4,105,000 4,782,000 Rivers 10,378 4,858,000 5,659,000 6,592,000 7,679,000 Total 112,110 28,856,000 33,616,000 39,157,000 45,717,000 Source: GTZ projections 2004based on National population census data.

SETTLEMENT PATTERN The pattern of settlement in the Niger Delta Region is largely determined by the availability of dry land and the nature of the terrain. The larger settlements are found in the interior parts of the Delta, which has better drainage conditions and accessibility. In the mangrove swamp zone, the main settlements such as Port Harcourt, Sapele, Ughelli, and Warri, have developed on islands of dry land that intersperse the zone with settlements being located at the head of the navigable limits of the coastal rivers or estuaries. In total, there are 13,329 settlements in the Niger Delta Region. The average population of 13,231of these (99% of the total) falls below 20,000 people. Settlements of fewer than 5,000 inhabitants constitute nearly 94% of the total number of settlements and only 98 settlements, that is less than 1% of the settlements, can be truly regarded as urban centres according to their population sizes. The main towns in this category include Port Harcourt, Warri, Asaba, Benin, Akure, Calabar, Uyo, Umuahia, Aba, Owerri and Yenagoa. The predominant settlement type in the Niger Delta is small and scattered hamlets. The vast majority of settlements comprise largely rural communities in dispersed village settlements. The typical community consists of compounds, which are closely spaced groups of small buildings housing 50 to 500 people, most of whom are farmers or fisher folk. There are also larger settlements, which are usually separated from other clusters of rural residences by their outer, rotational farmlands, oil palm or rubber plantation, bush, or stretches of secondary forest. These towns are usually located along roads, which radiate from a core where churches, schools, market places and other functions are situated. Most rural settlements lack essential amenities, such as medical facilities, efficient marketing services, adequate shopping facilities, good water, power supply and good transportation systems. Concentrating on the characteristic of the Niger Delta region would take a whole large project work on its own, our intention here is to give a brief geographical description of the region in other for us to clearly understand the context of this chapter, that is the politics followed by conflicts of oil discovery and subsequent palaver in the region,survey and research has proven that there are more males than females in the region,having an average of six persons in a household,life expectancy has deteriorated since the 1970 when oil business was booming,Nigeria has one of the worst infant mortality and survival rates in the world. Infant mortality rates are 105 per 1000 live births and for every 1000 live births in the country about 178 children die under the age of 5 years. According to UNICEF almost 1 in 5 children in Nigeria die before they are 5 years old. This is 30 times higher than in industrialized countries,the mortality rates in the Niger Delta Region do not differ from the depressingly high national levels.The climate of the Niger Delta Region varies from the hot equatorial forest type in the southern lowlands to the humid tropical in the northern highlands and the cool mundane type in the Obudu plateau area. The wet season is relatively long, lasting between seven and eight months of the year, from the months of March to October. In the northern and north-western parts of the Niger Delta Region, the rains may be delayed by as much as four weeks, thereby extending the dry season which, in recent times, tends to last some four to five months. There is usually a short break around August, otherwise termed the August break. The dry season begins in late November and extends to February or early March, a period of approximately three months. Since pre-colonial days, the Niger Delta has played a crucial role in the Nigerian economy. Its ports and rivers provided access for the British to penetrate the Nigerian hinterland; the gateway for the trade in slaves, and later export commodities such as palm produce, timber, rubber and even groundnut and cotton from the distant northern parts of Nigeria. The Niger Delta however has huge oil and gas reserves and ranks as the world's sixth largest exporter of crude oil and the second largest producer of palm oil, after Malaysia, which even obtained its palm seedlings from Nigeria. This will lead us to the discovery of oil in Nigeria.

DISCOVERY OF OIL AND CHALLENGES Was oil first discovered in Oloibiri in Bayelsa state in the Niger Delta?, the answer is No, above we gave a clear description of the Niger Delta region,its people,land,and even population,and among the Nine states of the region Ondo was included, and that brings us to the place where oil was first discovered, The search for Petroleum in Nigeria started in 1908 at Araromi area of the present Ondo State by a German Company known as Bitumen Corporation (Afe 2008: 28-32). This made Araromi the first camp of oil exploration outfit in Nigeria. However, Nigerian Bitumen Corporation ceased exploration as a result of the outbreak of World War I which broke out in 1914-1918. In 1937 the Shell ‘D’ Arcy, which later became Shell BP Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Limited, entered the oil exploration scene in Nigeria. However, the outbreak of World War II forced the company to suspend activities in Nigeria in 1941, but resumed activities again in 1946. The first deep exploration well was drilled in 1951 at Ihuo 16 kilometres northeast of Owerri, to a depth of 11, 228 feet, but no oil was found. Oil was later discovered at Akata well, which was drilled in 1953 but was suspended in 1954 due to it few quantity. However, in January 1956, oil was discovered in commercial quantity at Oloibiri, now in Bayelsa State, by Shell BP. Towards the end of the same year, a second discovery was made at Afam now in Rivers State.The first Cargo crude oil left Nigeria in February 1958, when production stood at 6,000 barrels per day with revenue accounted for about ₦122 million. This contributed 0.08% to the National Revenue. As a result of Shell’s success in the mid 1950s and thereafter other companies, notably, Mobil, Gulf (Chevron), Agip, Safrap, (later Elf), Tenneco (later Texaco), Philips Great Basins Texaco Overseas and Union, joined Shell in prospecting for oil (Fregene 1998:66). The number of both international and local companies prospecting for Nigerian oil increased tremendously over time. Okay, oil is discovered, and Nigeria can now determine her economic flow by the rich resources, our concern is the outcome of the oil indices, this led to numerous reaction by the people of the region.

FIRST REACTION (1966) Historically, the Niger Delta conflict dates back to the Akassa Raid of 1895, when the inhabitants of the area resisted economic domination by British merchants. The consequences of the Akassa Raid included the British invalidation and overthrow of the Royal Niger Company (RNC) and later colonialism.The beginning of militia action in the region by the people. Directly, a twenty seven (27) year old Isaac AdakaBoro, general officer commanding, the Niger Delta Volunteer Service,( DVS), declared an independent Niger Delta Peoples Republic, (NDPR) first time a region in Nigeria will attempt to secede on February 23, 1966, forty (40) days after the historic January 15 coup.It was 3 pm and the three divisions of the DVS, made up of 159 troops, were going into action at 5 pm with the objective of dislodging the federal police and taking over Yenagoa at 12 midnight. It was code-named “Operation Zero”. It marked the beginning of the “12-Day Revolution” during which Boro, an ex-police inspector, former president of Student Union Government of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, and a fresh graduate of Chemistry, called the attention of the world to the fact that the inhabitants of the Niger Delta were feeling very uncomfortable with their fate in Nigeria. In his words and I quote “Today is a great day, not only in your lives, but also in the history of the Niger Delta. Perhaps, it will be the greatest day for a very long time. This is not because we are going to bring the heavens down, but because we are going to demonstrate to the world what and how we feel about oppression… Remember your 70-year-old grandmother who still farms before she eats; remember also your poverty-stricken people; remember, too, your petroleum which is being pumped out daily from your veins; and then fight for your freedom”, It was the culmination of the injustice, political frustration and suffocation that the Ijaw and other Niger Delta people suffered in an independent Nigeria,Economic development of the area is certainly the most appalling aspect. There is not even a single industry. The only fishery industry which ought to be situated in a properly riverine area is sited about 80 miles inland at Aba. The boatyard at Opobo had its headquarters at Enugu, Personnel in these industries and also in the oil stations are predominantly non-Ijaw, and these were Boro’sgrievances. The revolution was foiled and Boro and his lieutenants were arrested. Boro and all his commanders were condemned to death. But fate favoured them and General Yakubu Gowon’s government freed them and created Rivers State and Lieutenant Commander Diete Spiff, an Ijaw was made governor, it was a dream come true,the revolution had failed and yet succeeded. “My men and I, with the creation of our state, are now free to help not only our people, but also Nigeria, to peace, unity, stability and progress” Boro enthused in 1967. But this was not to be, the civil war started and Boro gladly became a major in the Nigerian Army. He was killed on April 20, 1968, near Port Harcourt and that muted the radical voice of the Ijaw against the disappointments in their expectations for the next 30 years. ask if any purpose driven Ijaw or Niger Delta youth would have fought for emancipation just as Boro did, hell yes! People in the creeks suffered from a devastating oil spillage which has deprived many of the basic agricultural activities for sustainability.this chapter won’t be enough for us to widely discussed the action of Boro see (Isaac Boro; and seven Days Revolution in Nigeria by KayodeOgundaisi) but it has given a picture of the genesis of the Niger Delta conflict, justifiable or not?. MEND as the most popular and effective militia group amplified on the defunct Niger Delta Volunteer service( NDVS) led by Boro in the 1960s, the Niger Delta volunteer force led by a militia warlord Asari Dokubo, was directly inspired bythe Boro Movement, the NDVF,MEND and other groups are actors in the field which would be discussed in later chapter two, all erected in the singular bid to answering the Niger Delta question, even to the current Niger Delta Avengers group which we are still deliberating which category it falls in, the Avengers movement is a very controversial topic and has posed a lot of problem regarding if they fight for the Niger Delta cause Boro died for or its activities are for something else, anyway chapter three will attempt to answer the Avengers question.

KEN SARO-WIWA DIED FOR THE CAUSE Since independence, the Niger Delta has notstopped producing spokespersons,agitators,and fighters, and that I do not think will stop now as far as the Niger Delta remain under developed. President of the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni people (MOSOP), Ken Saro-Wiwa an astute writer was another actor, who reacted to the unanswered problem in the aforementioned region, since the 1970 about nine million barrels of crude oil has been spilled into the Niger delta environment. Followed by frequency of spillages in the Niger Delta has led to its reference as the global capital of oil pollution, there has been about 7,000 cases of oil spills in the Niger Delta between 1970 to 2000 ( fox 2010). There has been an estimated 300 oil spills every year, and this has made the place an ecological nightmare. Indeed,militant activities in the Niger Delta became a post 1999 development after the government demonstrated the use of force as its conflict resolution strategy as evident in the killing of the environment rights activists, of course Ken Saro-Wiwa and other Ogoni activists in 1995. The Ijaw and Ogoni have one more thing in common — oil. While oil was struck first in the Ijaw territory of Oloibiri in 1956, it was also found in commercial quantity in the Ogoni territory of K. Dere, known as Bomu Oil Field, in 1958. In all, the Ogonis have seven rich oil fields, which have contributed an estimated, unofficial, $40 billion to the national revenue. Despite this contribution, Ogoni nationalists regret that they had no representation at the national level, no pipe-borne water, no electricity, no job opportunities in the federal, state, public and private institutions, and no social or economic project of the federal government, even as crude oil flowed from their land into waiting oil tankers for export.in 1990, the Ogoni made of Babbe, Gokana, Ken Khana, NyoKhana, Ueme and Tai, with a population of about half a million, formed the Movement for the Survival of Ogoni People, (MOSOP), under the leadership of the eloquent Saro-Wiwa. The motto of the organisation is “Freedom, Peace and Justice”. It was founded on the principles of non-violence and equality.The Abacha junta accused Ken Saro-Wiwa and eight others of killing four Ogoni chiefs who were on the opposing side of the Movement for the Survival of Ogoni People, MOSOP. Saro-Wiwa and his colleagues were subsequently arrested, accused of the killings and tried by a special military tribunal. Though they denied the charges against them, they were imprisoned for over a year before being found guilty and sentenced to death by hanging. They were hanged on November 10, 1995 by the Abacha regime for what many believe was largely because ofSaro-Wiwa’s strong stance in pursuit of the rights of the Ogoni people. Their execution led to Nigeria’s suspension from the Commonwealth of Nations, which lasted for over three years. The killing of ken created another bond and a strong feeling of concern among the emerging youths and the actions that followed, see later chapters,MEND and NDA. On the other hand, the Federal Government ignores public calls to compensate the people of the Niger-Delta region for the negative impacts of oil production on the environment which include oil spillages, reduction of arable land, and the destruction of wild life and fish reserves. However, the government has been making several unfulfilled promises which probably accounted for the hostage-taking and kidnapping by some suspected youths in the region. The youths break the pipe lines in order to siphon crude oil. The government’s retaliation to these activities has rendered many communities homeless, women assaulted and others killed this was the case in Odi, Choba, Umuechem and Ogoni communities. Ironically, the oil companies operating in the region tend to have abandoned the idea of corporate social responsibility (CSR) and the concept of stakeholder’s theory, both theories would be critically analysed in the next section. However, the focus here is fundamentally on corporate citizenship which is the theoretical perspective of this study.

CONCLUSION From the events recorded in the Niger Delta, the inhabitants of the region have been subjected to untold hardship through oil pollution, environmental degradation, and the destruction of both the entire environment and the local populations sources of livelihood, as noted by Saturday Pere, a local palm wine tapper, the oil spills “kill our fish,destroy our skin,spoils our streams,we cannot drink (BBC 2010),This is one of the drivers of the conflict because land is a resource that means a lot to the people. Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta people (MEND) and others were faced with such dilemma of incompetency by the federal government, above Isaac Boro was seen as the pioneer of such struggle in the region driven by passion and just to see his people free,amplified in by Ken Saro-Wiwa and it continued.The owners of the oil wallow in neglect in an abused environment and the youths are driven to crime as a ventilation.As it is, the future, says Okoko, is not bright for the Niger Delta as the majority groups may not support restructuring or increase of derivation to 50 per cent as demanded. But if Nigeria wants peace, it is a challenge it must confront. If not, the agitation will continue and, who knows, one day, the God of justice, as Boro predicted, might hearken to the voice of the Niger Delta and intervene. Major actors and actions in the region are disastrous. Thanks to the late president Yar’Adua’samnesty initiative which would be examined later.

Notes and References A.O. Ikelegbe, ‘The economy of conflict in the oil rich Niger delta region of Nigeria’, Nordic Journal of African Studies, vol.14, no.2, 2005, pp.208-234. S. Ikhioya,“Real Issues in the Niger Delta, vanguard papers, 2006, 31, may. S.O Aghalino, “ From NDDC to Aamnesty;Change and Contuinity in the Denouement of the Niger Delta Crisis”, History Unlimited, (ed.) Leo Otoide,2012, Benin city,Mindex pub, pp.43. M.I.Ajaeroh, “Nigeria and the Niger Delta Phenomenon”,focusNigeria.com,2009,December 27 Holy Bible, Genesis chapt 1 vs 16.(KJV), “And God made two great lights: the greater light to rule the day and the lesser light to rule the night, He made the stars”. M.I.Ajaeroh,”Nigeria and the Niger Delta Phenomenon"

N. Tekena, “Oil Wars in the Niger Delta”, 1849-2009, Ibadan, 2011, Stirling holden publishers,pp.14.

Google search and Wikipedia “This contrasts with the 1995 World Bank Technical Report which gives the total land area of the Niger Delta as 20,000 sq. km located in south eastern Nigeria”

Clark Bekederemo,”all for oil”, oxford, 2000, pp.21.