User talk:IbrahimGE

GEOTEXTILES DR.IBRAHIM .G.,E.

The expression “geotextiles" is used to describe textile fabrics or other textile products which are used also in combination with textiles or non-textile elements in the diverse sectors of the construction industry, usually in conjunction with soil, rock, water or any other geotechnical materials for improving the engineering performance of the engineering works. Geotextiles are defined by the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) D 35 as “ any permeable textile used with geotechnical materials as an integral part of a man-made project, structure or system” .Geotextiles are a member of a larger family called geo-synthetics, other members are geogrids, geonets, geomembranes, and geocomposites. Geotextiles are the largest group of geosynthetics in terms of volume, they are used in geotechnical engineering, heavy construction, building and pavement construction, hydrogeology and environmental engineering.

GEOTEXTILE FUNCTIONS Geotextiles and related products may be used in a wide range of applications where they may be required to perform one, or a combination, of design functions. Different functions, and different operational environments, will make different demands on the geotextile. In general the two broad requirements of a  geotextile are that it must be robust enough to survive short term environments as well as maintaining adequate properties in the long term to fulfill the required design function. In civil engineering structures a geotextile performs mechanical functions such as separation and reinforcement and hydraulic functions such as drainage and filtration either separately or simultaneously. Beside these functions there are two other functions ,these are water proofing and protection.

SEPARATION FUNCTION Geotextiles are used to separate two dissimilar materials such as two layers of soil with different properties. The purpose of separation is to maintain or improve the integrity and performance of both materials.. The geotextile ensure that the aggregate maintains its load-bearing ability. Without geotextile, subsoil and aggregate base intermix and load-bearing capacity are reduced. This function is very important in all forms of roadways, railways, and parking areas, where the material used to form the base of the construction, usually some form of aggregate , is separated from the soil below.

REINFORCEMENT FUNCTION Of all the geotextile functions, reinforcement is perhaps the most diversely applied and most technically demanding. Applications vary from comparatively short term, low risk , installations such as unpaved roads ,to long term, high risk applications, such as vertical walls and bridge abutments .This function involves stabilization of soil mass by provision of tensile strength to the soil-fabric system. Geotextile of high tenacity, when placed in a soil mass, takes up some of the tensile stresses and helps distribute them more evenly. FILTRATION FUNCTION The role of a geotextile as a filter is to permit the free flow of water from one side of the geotextile sheet to the other, without significant long-term loss of soil particles. When filtration is the primary function to be achieved two contradictory mechanisms to be achieved, adequate flow capability and upstream soil particles retention. Adequate flow requires large fabrics pores but soil particle retention requires small fabric pores. Thus, knowledge of both the flow regime and soil characteristics are essential for proper design .Typical applications areas of geotextiles for filtration are pipe underdrains, drainage for retaining walls and erosion control structures. DRAINAGE FUNCTION Adequate drainage is essential for achieving and maintaining soil stability in embankments and in road stability etc. Graded aggregate filters have traditionally been used for drain protection, but the problem of design, cost , placement and testing of aggregate filters makes geotextiles an attractive alternative. The drainage function of a geotextile is generally associated with its ability to transmit liquid or gas in the plane of fabric without soil loss. The major difference between filtration and drainage function is the direction of flow which makes in-plane permeability critical for the drainage function. Drainage refers to planar flow as opposed to filtration which refers to flow across the geotextile. WATERPROOFING FUNCTION (MOISTURE BARRIER) Geotextile can act as waterproof materials when impregnated with bitumen or polymeric sealing materials. After impregnation, the water and vapor permeability of the fabric become very low in both cross-plane and in plane-flow. PROTECTION FUNCTION In a variety of structures, geotextiles are used with geomembranes. Geotextile can provide long term protection of geomembranes against mechanical damage ,such as perforation and abrasion ,during and after installation .Although in many applications it is possible to identify one dominate function out of these basic functions, often other functions still perform essential roles even if they are secondary. For instance, in an unpaved road base the role of a geotextile is clearly that of a separator. However, reinforcement and filtration Functions should also be considered. GEOTEXTILE APPLICATIONS The earliest uses of the geotextile concept are credited to the road builders of the ancient Roman empire who used sheepskin and heather atop the ground before placing cobblestone in constructing the Appian way. In 1926, woven cotton fabrics were used as an early form of geotextiles in a series of road construction field by the South Carolina Highways Department .The first use of synthetic fabrics as a geotextiles was in the late 1950s, when a permeable , woven, synthetic fabric was used for erosion control in Florida.Nonwoven Geotextiles were first used in 1969 in an earthen dam as a filter under erosion protection on the upstream face. Since the early 1970s, the use of geosynthetics or geo-polymeric structures within civil-engineering constructions has expanded to such an extent that today they are almost certain to be included in any major work. Thanks to Geotextiles, roads, railway lines, drains, embankments, and dikes can now be built more easily and at lower cost. Applications of Geotextiles have been constantly expanded .As a rule, the use of Geotextiles reduces both construction costs and construction times. It is beyond the scope of this research to cover all geotextile applications. However, the researcher will try to describe some of the most common applications of geotextiles in civil engineering sector. ROAD BUILDING Geotextiles provides effective stabilization and critical subsoil / base course separator for paved surfaces and also stabilize and retain aggregate for unpaved surfaces, such as parking, loading lots, roads, airport runways, …etc.

RAILWAY TRACKS Subgrade stabilization has always been a problem to the railroads. Due to heavy dynamic load resulting from train traffic, the stony ballast is very often contaminated by rising fine particles from the underlying soil, which leads to deformation of the ground which eventually causes a gradual decrease in the bearing capacity of the upper structure. Geotextiles used in railroad stabilzation reduce maintenance and extend the track’s service life. They also prevent the loss of costly ballast, reduce rail deformation , and increase the ballast’s loadbearing capacity. EMBANKMENTS ON SOFT GROUND When embankments are constructed over weak soil such as soft clays, there can be problems with short- term instability in the form of deep- seated rotational slipping or transverse spreading of the embankment. Before the advent of geotextiles, these problems were overcome by building the embankment with very flat side slopes .A much more economic solution can be achieved by using a basal layer of geotextile reinforcement, placed over the original formation before placing of embankment fill. The geotextile will impart tensile strength to the base of the fill, thereby resisting lateral spreading, rotational failure of the underlying soft ground. WALLS AND STEEP SIDED EMBANKMENTS Unlike embankments on soft ground, walls and steep sided embankments need support from the geotextile for their entire design life. The essence of construction is comprising the placing of the fill incorporating horizontal layers of geotextile reinforcement. As one lift of fill is completed, the geotextile is rolled out over the surface of the fill to ensure an adequate bond length.

EROSION CONTROL Soil erosion is a phenomenon of transportation of soil particles by exogenous wind or water action. The erosion phenomenon starts as soon as the first particle, detached from the rest of the soil, gets carried away due to the impact of splash and velocity of flow. The traditional method for controlling the erosion was by using a flexible protective structure such as rip-rap or heavy armour stones, concrete blocks, etc. The use of a geotextile filter can simplify construction of the erosion control measure, where it replace several layers of granular filter beneath rip-rap armour stones. DRAINAGE APPLICATIONS With the availability of geotextile with a wide range of pore sizes and permeability, it is a comparatively simple matter to select a fabric that will filter the soil to be drained, where the drainage trench is simply lined with the filter fabrics and back filled with an aggregate that is coarse enough to act as a drainage medium. CHOOSING THE RIGHT GEOTEXTILE In order to choose the right geotextile, its precise function must be known. Will it be used for separation ,or for reinforcement etc.? Will it be subjected to high or low stresses ? Is the subsoil firm or soft ? etc. All these important questions which have a bearing on the choice of geotextile and of the raw material. Because only a correctly choosen textile will satisfy the requirements

MEDICAL TEXTILES DR.IBRAHIM .G.,E.

Medical textiles in the industrial textile field gradually have taken an important role. Medical textiles refer to textile products often used in combination with non textile materials which are used for the medical care of humans and animals and act as protection for personnel and equipment in medical care situation medical textiles differ from other textile products in that there is often little scope for diversification and design variation .The medical textiles section, looked at in its broadest term, is undoubtedly one of the greatest success stories of recent years, The medical and related Hygiene industries have been major users of textiles products for many years. The Huge growth of medical applications of textiles over the last 12 years or more has mirrored that the development of modern medicine and surgery has not been limited to just the volume of materials used, where medical application in addition to protective medical apparel textiles are used for implant, blood filter and surgical dressing… etc, today there has been a huge increase in both the size of the market and the variety of product available and most industry leaders at all levels of the distributions network, say that there is potential for new products and application. CLASSIFICATION OF MEDICAL TEXTILES Medical textiles could possible be classified by fiber type or processing route. A classification based on function is more appropriate, classification by function emphasizes aspects and different textile structure, it also emphasizes that some application requires several functions, medical textiles are capable of meeting all requirements of medical application on their own, where medical textiles includes many products with a composite structures. So it is possible to be classified as follow: Textiles for implantation such as (sutures, vascular grafts, fabrics for heart valves and repair, artificial joints , fabric for hernia repair, surgical reinforcement , meshes fibrous bone plates .. etc) Non-implantable materials such as (bandages, wound dressing, plasters….etc) Health care and Hygiene products such as (bedding, protective clothing, surgical gowns, wipe, face masks.. etc Textiles in extracorporeal devices such as( artificial liver, lung…etc Today medical textiles are produced and sold within a strict form of regulation and legislation. Such control is essential to protect patients, medical practitioners and manufactures. TEXTILES FOR IMPLANTATION These materials used in effecting repairs to the body whether it be wound closures sutures or replacement surgery (Heart prosthesis-artificial ligaments, surgical meshes …etc) Although the natural way to replace a defective part of the body would be transplantation this is not always possible due to several reasons including availability, performance requirement… etc, Therefore physicians often have to use artificial substitute (biomaterial) such as biotextiles, of origin or synthetic material. A part used to replace a body part is referred to as prosthesis. Although textile materials depend on specific application in general, The biological requirements for a satisfactory artificial implant may be stated as follow: 1-A suitable artificial surface of the body cells to be easily adhered and grown on. 2-Porosity, which determines the rate at which tissue will grow and encapsulate the implant (implant material should be sufficiently porous. 3-Fiber diameter in general, should be smaller than the cells for their adherence, to make human tissues capable of encapsulating. 4-Biodegradability or biostability depending on the application 5-non-toxicity where fiber polymer or fabrication techniques must be –non-toxic and fibers should be free of contaminants The Implantable material must meet mechanical requirements for the particular application biocompatibility for examples requires that the biotextiles must interact, with the host in a controlled and predictable way. In addition to these blood cells cause formation of destructive blood cloth. Application of textiles as implant include abdominal wall, artery, biohybrid organs , bone , heart valve and wall, vein, hip, joint ,ligament , tendon , trachea …etc SOFT TISSUE IMPLANTS Biomedical materials are used in applications such as soft tissue, artificial prostheses, artificial skin, patches, artificial tendon and artificial cornea. The main component of soft tissue is the human organism, therefore artificial implant, with collagen modified surface easily adhere to soft tissue, soft tissue compatible artificial materials include silicone rubber, polyurethane hydrogels, carbon fiber, collagen, silk protein and cellulose chitin. TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS Ligaments are the fairly elastic bands of tissue that join bones together, tendons are made of similar tissue. The most commonly replaced ligaments are those of knee. Manmade tendons have made of woven and braided porous structure coated with silicon, but nonwoven fabrics are not suitable as ligament prosthesis because of their lack of strength, woven and knitted structures are used as artificial ligaments. Braiding a carbon fiber core and a polyester sleeve have produced a material for replacing damaged ligaments as well as polyester and carbon fibers were used in twisted, knitted and narrow- woven constructions but braided fabrics with a stress strain behavior similar to a natural tendons or ligament are the most suitable structure where braided polypropylene implant usually consists of several strands that are braided into tape –like structure, A braided carbon fiber implant is typically made up of thirty –two strands of 3.000 fiber each .The requirements for ligament and tendon implants are both biological (biocompatibility – long – term stability ,and supporting tissue proliferation and bio-mechanical (physiological progressive stress strain), bio-absorbable are preferable for manufacturing of ligaments and tendon . Synthetic material can not match the fatigue resistance of natural tissue with its ability to regenerate itself so a graft should encourage the ingrowth of new collagen to form a new tendon or ligament a successful graft must match the mechanical properties of the original ligament or tendon as closely as possible and must induce adverse tissue reactions. Finally at the present time, no material has been shown to be ideal tendon where founding problem including the abrasion of the prostheses at the point of entry, leading both to malfunction and excessive tissue response to the debris and the creep of the polymer that radically alters the ability to replicate the natural mechanical response to loads, thereby leading to instability. SURGICAL MESH Surgical mesh is used in the abdominal wall after injury or lesion caused by hernia. Prostheses made from micro-porous expanded (PTFE) such has Gore-Tex, soft tissue patch, polypropylene mesh such as (the meadox trelex) where polypropylene is resistant to infection and it is not allergenic. Mesh or fabric substrate made from a knitted non-resorbable polyester which is impregnated or developed with partially cross – linked (resorbable). The materials are loaded with anti- microbial by soaking prior to suturing to the abdominal wall margin, the porous material is a substrate which is impregnated or other wise associated with suitable substance capable of retaining the anti- microbial agent. In the composite prosthesis structure the antibiotics said to be completely surround the membrane mesh or fabric due to the interlocking (impregnated) nature of the resorbable gelatin and the non- resorbable membrane. SUTURES The use of sutures is one of the most common practices in the medical field and this has direct and great mudrity of the world’s population. Sutures are threads that are used to tie around vessels such as arteries to close them. Sutures are also used to close wounds produced by trauma. They can be classified into two groups (absorbable and non-absorbable). Absorbable sutures are, as the name implies, temporary due to their ability to be absorbed or decomposed by the natural reaction of the body to foreign substances. Absorbable sutures include collagen, catgut, polyglycolic acid, polylactic acid copolymer, and polydioxin. Absorbable sutures are used internally to stop internal bleeding and are degraded by the body fluid after the healing process non absorbable sutures are not dissolved or decomposed by the body’s natural action. Non absorbable sutures are divided into natural fibers (silk – cotton) and synthetic fibers (polyester, polyamide, polypropylene, steel, and teflon non-absorbable sutures materials are considered to be unresbed in the body for a long period of time . Sutures are manufactured with a wide variety of parameters, they can be mono-filaments or multi-filaments twisted together spun together or braided, they can also be dyed , undyed, coated, not coated .Taken into consideration in the manufacture and use of sutures are properties such as( stress – strain relationship , tensile strength, flexibility, wettability surface morphology, degradation, thermal properties, contact angle of knots, and elasticity , However a rough surface allows for better knot stability and security due to the friction between the surfaces. Finally it is aid that synthetic materials are better than natural materials in general and mono-filaments are better than braids minimizing the size of the sutures assists in reducing tissue reaction. Suture materials must be sterilized when used by using sterilization methods ( ionizing, radiation and ethylene oxide). BIOMATERIALS IN OPHTHALMOLOGY Natural and synthetic hydrogels physically resemble the eye tissue and hence have been used in ophthalmology as soft contact lenses. Soft contact lenses are made of transparent hydrogel with high oxygen permeability, Hard contact lenses are made of (methylmethacrylate) and cellulose acetate but flexible contact lenses are made from silicone rubber. DENTAL APPLICATION The necessary requirement for a successful dental implant are fixation in the Jaw bone and formation and maintenance of a suitable permuce cossal seal ,bone ingrowth well occur if relative movement of implants and host elevator bone is limited during the post- implantation healing period. Biopolymers are used in dental treatment to substitute for defects in tissues. Major requirements of dental polymers include translucence and abrasion resistance insolubility in oral fluid, non-toxicity, relatively high softening point ,easy fabrication and repair. The most widely used polymer for dental use is polymethylmethacrylate and its derivatives, and polysulfone. ORTHOPAEDIC PRODUCTS Orthopaedic products in the health care industry include arm sling, surgical collars, knee supports, splints and restraints. These products need to be stable and secure as well as comfortable, they are basically made of cotton and synthetic fibers. Synthetic Orthopaedic cushion bandages retain their cushioning effect in the moist atmosphere between skin and plaster, where non woven orthopedic cushion bandages are used under plaster casts and compression bandage for padding and comfort, They are made of polyester or polypropylene with blends of natural and other synthetic fibers. Light needle punching gives bulk and loft to the structure for greater cushion effect. These products were traditionally, made from cotton NONIMPLANTABLE MATERIALS These materials are used for external applications on the body and may or may not make contact with skin DRESSINGS Synthetic occlusive wound dressing are used for the treatment of burns, granulation tissue, dermatitis, ulceration, blisters, fissures, herpes, and several other skin condition. Shallow wound one that involves the loss of the epidermis, produces a scab when allowed to heal naturally without a dressing ,the scab is rigid ,dry, and porous to the oxygen required by the regenerated tissue, but acts as barrier to dirt and infection, the scab is shed when regeneration of the epermis is complete. The natural scab has disadvantages that is oxygen permeability is limited, not flexible, and that it is prone to cracking and damage and hence vulnerable to infection. Dressing are used for many purposes including protection of the wound from physical damage, covering unsightly wounds, exclusion of infection, absorption of excessive fluids from the wound , preventing of strikethrough (transfer of micro- organisms from the wound to external environment) and improving of patient comfort. Ideally dressing should be soft, pliable, to protect from further injuries, be easily applied and removed, be sterile, lint free and non -toxic. Wound care products are usually made of three layers, wound contact layer, absorbent material and base material. Wound dressing should not also adhere to the wound allowing easy removal without disturbing new tissue growth. WOUND DRESSING CATEGORIES Wound dressing might be categorized in several different ways based on composition, form and function. 1-FILM DRESSING These dressing are transparent adhesive -coated materials that are permeable to gases such as vapor and oxygen ,occurs, but impermeable to bacteria. Film dressings tend to allow accumulation of large volumes of wound exudate beneath the dressing. Film Dressings have been used experimentally with some success to control skin bacteria during surgery. film dressings are designed as surgical drapes, but typically of polymeric films spread with appropriate polysaccharide dressing. 2-BIOLOGICAL DRESSINGS Biological dressings are at much earlier stage of development than other dressing types, these dressings are coated with treated collagen, the major application of these material is expected to be for sever burns where they may be regarded as a temporary skin substitute and to serve as anti-microbial barrier layer to prevent the loss of body fluids, proteins and electrolytes. 3-HYDROCOLLOID DRESSINGS Hydrocolloid dressings are easily removed from the healing wound with out damage to the newly formed granulation tissue and new epidermis of the healing site. . GAUZE Gauze is a light weight fabric of open weave made from carded cotton yarns. Gauze should be soft, pliable and absorbent. Most standard specifications require gauze to be bleached, clean and free from weaving defects, and contain no more of seed coat leaf, or other impurities. Gauzes have been used as the main wound dressing material where it was found that wound heals fast when kept in a moist occlusive condition. Coated gauze are the most common used, and most Gauzes are made from cotton in the form of a loose plain weave. General Gauze is used mostly as a dressing for direct swabs applications and is also used to treat burns and scalds.Changing a gauze dressing before the wound is healed results in removal of at least part of the scab and may destroy some of the regenerating tissues, causing pain and danger of reinfection associated with changing dressing, so gauze may be impregnated with plaster to immobilize and support broken limbs. BANDAGES The oldest known use of bandage refers to Sumeria (2100.b.c) The Egyptians have used natural adhesive bandages as early as 4.000 years ago for various medical application. The Bandage can be woven, knitted, nonwoven and elastic or non-elastic. CLASSIFICATION OF BANDAGE 1-DOMETTE BANDAGE Domette bandage consists of plain weave fabric in which the warp threads are cotton and the weft threads are wool Woven cotton rolled bandage have several disadvantages, they don’t stretch, low absorbency and they ravel under stress. Nonwoven Bandages made of polyester or polypropylene with blends of natural and other synthetic fiber are used for orthopaedic uses. 2-STRETCH (ELASTIC) BANDAGES Stretch bandages can be made by twisted yarns or elastic yarns and by using knitted or woven structures. Woven stretch bandages are referred to as crepe bandage. Knitted stretch bandages are normally produced as tubes. Elastic bandages are used for sprained wrist and ankle support. Elasticity can also be obtained by using two warp beams during weaving, one under normal tension and the other under high tension. This bandage type is available in various diameters and is used for holding a dressing on a finger or limb to provide support and comfort. 3-COMPRESSION BANDAGE Compression bandages are used to exert a certain amount of compression for the treatment and prevention of deep thrombosis, leg ulceration and varicose veins, depending on the compression they provide. Compression bandages are classified as light, moderate, high and extra- high compression bandages, they can be woven, warp, or weft knitted. Compression bandage may be made of pure cotton, matt, bright viscose rayon, polyamide, elastomeric and rubber filaments. 4-OPEN- WEAVE BANDAGE Open – weave bandage consists of cotton cloth of plain weave. It is similar to gauze in structure, It is a porous, disposable… strip of cotton fabric of one continuous length containing no joints, clean, and reasonably free from weaving defects. Band- ages are normally supplied in widths of 2 cm, 3 cm, 5 cm, and 7 cm, and in length of three to five meters. Open – weave bandage cloth is most often used to protect dressings, hold them in place and to give them support. CUSHIONING Cushioning fabrics are used to distribute mechanical stress evenly in situations where stress concentrations would be harmful, Pressure sores is probably the dominant example of the use of cushioning decubital ulcers arise when tissue is subjected to external pressure for a period of time, with ulcers occurring most rapidly with increasing pressure, such pressure sores can occur in patients recovering from surgery. In the past sheep skin was placed under the patient, to reduce the pressure on the most stress tissue by spreading the weight more evenly, however, sheep skins are naturally limited and are difficult to wash and sterilize.

APPLICATION OF TEXTILES IN HEART PROSTHESES DR.IBRAHIM .G.,E. HEART PROSTHESES A Prosthesis is a device that is used to overcome surgically some deficiency in the body. The most common prostheses are   vascular ,prosthetic heart valves and patches…etc Classification of prostheses Each prosthesis shall be classified as indicated below 1-SYNTHETIC TEXTILE A-knitted                   B-woven 2-synthetic non-textile A-extruded /expanded polymers 3-Biological A-Allograft   B- Xenograft PATCHES Patches are used to close gaps in the septal wall of the heart. Prosthetic patch has become a widely accept technique for the repair of coarctation. Patch may be either autogenous or synthetic. Synthetic patches may be made from polyester or teflon mesh or tightly woven polyester .The size of the patch is determined by the length of the arteriotomy, and the patch is made large enough to ensure that sutures can be placed in an area of the heart that is free of disease. patch has been laminated on to the surface of a cardiac pumping diaphragm to maintain a totally biolized surface. THE VASCULATURE The Vasculature consists of arteries, arterioles capillaries and veins. Arteries carry blood away from the heart to all parts of the body, where arteries are made up of layers of smooth muscle fibers and elastic membrane tissue. Arterioles carry blood into capillary tissues. capillaries, the smallest vessels , through which exchange take place between the blood and the tissues, whereas veins carry blood back to the heart VASCULAR GRAFTS Vascular grafts have only been a practical reality for about 30 years, surgical techniques and prosthetic technology have been developed rapidly and allowed life and limb saving surgical interventions that many people take for granted , consider that there was no successful surgical for replacement of the aortic aneurysm until synthetic grafts became available. Artificial veins or arteries are used to replace segments of the natural cardiovascular system that are blocked or weakened. Grafts are inserted to bypass the blockages and restore circulation. TYPES OF VASCULAR GRAFTS Vascular grafts maybe biologic or synthetic. There are three categories of biologic grafts which are autologous grafts ,Allografts and heterografts .Autologous grafts (tissues taken from one part of the body and moved to another part .Allografts or homografts are tissue from one person transplanted into another . Heterografts are tissues from another species that are transplanted into a human .  Synthetic vascular grafts are produced from polyester or polytetraflouroethylene teflon ) with either woven or knitted structures, as parallel, tepered and bifurcated tubes. The grafts normally incorporate a coloured line along the lengh of the graft to assist the surgeon in avoiding introducing twist into the graft as it is implanted. THE IDEAL GRAFT The ideal graft should last a life time and permit blood passage without clotting or infection. The rate should be as close 100% as possible and it should show more compliance. The vessel that is used in replacing.(45) The grafts should be easy to manufacture and store impervious to blood leakage to prevent excessive blood loss and the development of perigraft hematoma, which can interfere with healing and promote infection .(46) Porosity may be essential for fabrics and other biological  grafts CHARACTERISTICS OF THE IDEAL GRAFT Reasonably priced -readily available – variety of size – easy to store easy to manufacture – durable ( survives repeated sterilization, long life in body) suitable for use in the body (bio compatible – non toxic – non allergenic – non throbogenic infection resistant easy to handle ( easy to pass suture needle – pliable elastic – does not kink). REQUIREMENTS FOR FINISHED VASCULAR GRAFT 1-	porosity, water permeability, integral water permeability, leakage and water entry pressure . 2-	strength 3-	length 4-	relaxed internal diameter 5-	pressurized internal diameter 6-	wall thickness 7-	suture retention strength 8-	kink diameter/ radius. THE CARDIAC VALVE PROSTHESES The first clinical use of a cardiac - valve prosthese took place in 1952 , when Brcharles Hulngel implanted the first artificial caged ball valve for aortic insufficiency .The first implant of a replacement valve in the anatomic position took place in 1960 since then many different types of heart valve prostheses have been developed  and used in general during the past 10 years. The surgical implantation of prosthetic heart valves has become successful. Today there are many different way making prosthetic valves, because of the various complications , which occur with different valves. THE IDEAL HEART VALVE SHOULD BE 1-	be fully sterile at the time of implantation and be non toxic. 2-	be surgically convenient to insert near the normal location of the heart. 3-	conform to the heart structure (the size and shape of prosthesis should not interfere with cardiac function.) 4-	show a minimum resistance to flow to prevent a significant pressure drop across the valve. 5-	have a minimal reverse flow necessary for valve closure, so as to keep the incompetence of the valve allow level. 6-	show long resistance to mechanical and structural wear belong – lasting (25 years, ) and maintain its normal functional performance (most not deteriorate over time) 7-	cause minimal trauma to blood elements and the endothelial tissue of the cardiac vascular structure surrounding. 8-	The valve should also allow probability for thromboembolic complications without the use of anticoagulants. 9-	be sufficiently quiet so as not to disturb the patient 10-	produce minimal pressure gradient 11-	yield relatively small regurgitation 12-	minimize production of turbulence 13-	not induce regions of high shear stress 14-	contain no stagnation or separation regions in its flow field, especially adjacent to the valve super structure. INFECTION IN OPEN HEART Infection in open heart is the most serious complication of heart prosthesis. The signs and systems of infection in open heart which should alert the patient and physician, may first be obvious distal to the graft. The patient may have a sudden loss of peripheral pulses associated with chemical changes of pain. Pallor may also exist, systamic signs and systoms also may result from an infected garft, the patient may have fever ranging from one of a low grade, nature to a very high spikes associated with septicemia and even septic shock. The possibility of the development of an infected graft, particularly when prosthetic material is used as graft must be considered of fever occur, particularly in the absence of anyother obvious source. Other problems may be present such as hemorrhage from the gastrointestinal tract. On the other hand the patient may present with evidence of gross gestrointestinal bleeding REQUIREMENTS OF HEART PROSTHESIS requirements specified for implants with regard to duration of contact with human. Body where the contact medium and the intended biostability of the material are stricter compatibility than those for operating. Theatre textiles and products which are used in direct contact with the central nervous system or in the immediate vicinity of the heart or those which are deliberately dissolved in the body. The most important general requirement of heart prosthesis is The compatibility of the material to the human body and the ease with it can be sterilized. BIOCOMPATIBILITY REQUIREMENTS 1-	no triggering of immunological reactions and allergies 2-	no causing of unusual foreign body reaction 3-	no cytotoxic reaction. 4-	no mutagenic, teratogenic or earunogenic reaction 5-	no undesirable biodegradation 6-	blood compatibility – no change in blood composition and blood properties ( blood clothing haemolysis) 7-	wide – lumen textile vascular replacement a cement thrombogenic for intraco - operative sealing 8-	sterility 9-	freedom from pyrogens 10-	adequate stability of the structure ( including under long – term loading - tensile- pressure- bending) 11-	load- elongation characteristics compatible with the tissue being replaced 12-	inter operative length matching of the prosthesis 13-	availability in suitable dimensions.

HEALTH CARE AND HYGIENE PRODUCTS DR.IBRAHIM .G.,E. PROTECTIVE HEALTH CARE GARMENTS The purpose of protective health care garments is to protect from contamination by blood and other infection fluids, Protective healthcare textiles include operation and emergency room textiles, barrier products, breath membranes, surgeon and nurse, caps, masks, foot wear , coats.. etcThere are two basic requirements for a protective textile garment, it should be affordable, breathable, comfortable, dependable and effective.The impact of contagious diseases have made hospitals very cautious about protecting fabrics, the medical profession was once concerned mainly with protecting patients from germs, now they must protect them selves. These precautions have caused an increase in demand for medical product stroring. The protective material has to be waterproof but breathable, and it must allow transmission of moisture vapour. They are usually made of polyurethane, polyester or other copolymers. These garments consists of micro porous membranes which provide comfort by allowing body perspiration to be transmitted from the skin surface to the air through a fabric. Health care garments can be woven, knitted or nonwoven. Health care garment could be washable or disposable. Laboratory tests for health care garments include water repellency, lounderability and strength. PRODUCTS USED IN HOSPITALS Products used in hospitals include bedding clothing, shoes covers, cloths incontinence products, cloths and wipes. OPERATING ROOM APPAREL Normal operating room apparel comprises a scrub suit, consisting of trousers and short sleeved tunic, or a dress, this is clean but normally sterile and will normally be worn all day. The traditional material for operating – room apparel is woven cotton dyed in green, in some cases. Woven cotton has the advantages of being easy to launder and sterilize and relatively comfortable to wear, All fabric used for operation room apparel must have antistatic properties. NURSE’S APPAREL Nurse’s apparel is made of conventional fabrics since no specific requirement is needed other than comfort and durability. These fabrics consist of tissue reinforced with a polyester or polypropylene spun- laid web. SURGICAL MASK Masks often have a multiple layers structure to ensure more efficient filtration of the breath while masks are made of three layers. The middle layer consists of extra fine glass fibers or synthetic micro fibers covered on both sides by an acrylic bonded parallel-laid or wet-laid nonwoven fabrics. The inner layer consists of a melt – blown polypropylene and outer layer which consists a spun– bonded viscose web to provide strength and to prevent the loss of polypropylene fibers masks also contain tapes which are sewn to enable them to be tied firmly into place over the nose and mouth. . The performance requirements for surgical face masks are high bacterial filtration capacity, high air permeability , light weight and non-allergenic.

SURGICAL CAPS Surgical caps are often made of cellulosic Fibers, with the paralled– laid or spun laid process ,but commonly for surgical spun the surgical cap made in one piece or from two or three pieces sewn to give a better fit OVERSHOES Overshoes are usually made in one piece or may by made from two or three pieces sewn together to give better fit. Elastic threads are sewn into the edges of the openings to provide simple efficient closure. GOWNS Gowns manufacturers are responding to higher demands of protection by producing products with increased barrier level. Gowns are often made from polyester cellulose and composite polypropylene fibers, and are supplied in sterile packs and have the additional advantages of being used in the event of major emergency .Woven cotton fabrics are traditionally used in some surgical gowns because cotton does not produce static electrical charges that can build up and produce electric sparks, however it may release particles from the surgeon and also generate high levels of dust , also non woven surgical gowns are used to prevent sources of contamination. The general requirements for surgical gowns include liquid repellency, bacterial barrier properties, and aesthetics flame resistance static safety and toxicity. The fabrics should also be sufficiently flexible, adequate strength tear resistance and comfort SURGICAL DRAPES Drapes are used in the operating room to cover patients and the area around him to reduce the risk of the wound becoming contaminated by skin cells shed by the patient. Drapes are made from woven cotton or linen, and usually supplied cut to a variety of different shapes appropriate to different surgical procedures and contain an opening according to the position of the surgical site. They could also be made of non- woven fabrics are used as backing material on one or both sides of a film, while the film is impermeable to bacteria. Nonwoven backing is high absorbent to both body perspiration and secretions from the wound. The general requirements for surgical drapes include liquid repellency bacterial barrier, conformability, tactile softness, comfort, strength, fiber tie-down properties lint propensity and abrasion resistance, flame resistance, static safety and toxicity.

BEDDING The bedding is used in the sence of body whose breath is large in comparison with its thickness, the flexible web may be woven or laid down as a nonwoven fabric. It is preferred that the web be permeable to aid the deposition besides that it can allow access of air to the encased limb .The web most preferably has a porous structure and in the case of woven or non- woven fabrics, the porosity of the web may be conditioned by the method of manufacture, so that this particular characteristic may be predetermined to insulate the burned tissues of the patient form it patient for the purpose of covering him to prevent exposure may be required it. WIPES AND CLOTHS Cloths and wipes are used to clean wounds prior to wound dressing or to treat rashes and burns. The wiper is produced by forming a web of nonwoven materials in desired conventional fashion, saturating the web either before or after dying with a liquid solution of the binder material in solvent to cause a pick up by the web of a desired amount of the binder material. The wipe must be capable of retaining .The premoistened wiper which is capable of providing high wet strength until used, the premoistened wiper has a nonwoven web substrate  of fibers which are bonded together by polymeric adhesive. SURGICAL SWABS A swab is an absorbent textile pad used in general surgery to prepare the site of the operation to absorb excess blood and body fluids, to pack body cavities during surgery and to clean the incision prior to suturing .The traditional swab which is made of cotton gauze suffers from disadvantages despite its widespread use. The advantages of traditional swabs, in particular are their high absorbency and non linting properties -   LINT Lint is a plain weave cotton fabric that is frequently used in the treatment of mild burns. Lint consists of 50/50 polyester blended and tightly woven into fabric. It has a durable, moisture resistance and static control finish, it has also proven to be comfortable to wear. Other properties include abrasion resistance, good tensile strength, fast drying and reusability - SURGICAL TOWELS Nonwoven disposable towel have high absorptive capacity and excellent drying ability with minimum of moisture strike- through. Surgeon may have from about 15 to about 30 grams, of water remaining on his hands and arms after the scrubbing operation, this towel has an absorptive capacity of about 4 to about 7grams of water and weights, about 30 grams surgeon’s. The towel is must be demonstrating excellent abrasion resistance, strength, sturdiness and at the same time it must be soft. INCONTINENCE AND HYGIENE PRODUCTS Incontinence is normally regarded as a problem of the very young, the very old and the disabled or bedridden. There are number of incontinence suffer of all ages, the main problem is that of urinary incontinence with stress (caused by laughing, sneezing extertion or emotional upset ). Product designs need to meet the different levels of incontinence according to different levels of activity from fully active to chair bound or bedridden. Incontinence protection must not leak, or cause discomfort or skin irritation to the patient. NAPPIES (DIAPERS) The types of nappies or diapers vary greatly through out the world from reusable cloth to the modern disposable type. ( Disposable diapers and similar have been manufactured using one or more layers of cellulose tissue which makes the diaper relatively stiff . Reusable nappy is made from woven terry cloth which is a woven, warp-pile cotton fabric coverd on both sides with uncut loops . The cloth can vary in thickness and weight according to the thickness and quality of the yarn used and the density of the structure . Reusable nappies need to be changed ,washed and dried. Reusable napes can be classed into : 1-ONE LAYER DIAPER One-layer diaper has the problem that all the moisture stays evenly distributed through the diaper so that a high amount of urine remains in direct contact with the baby’sskin and can cause diaper rash. 2-MULTI LAYER DIAPER Multi-layer diaper using 100% cotton for skin contact layer and synthetic nonabsorbent layer of polyester or equivalent to provide a wicking action to draw and hold moisture away from the skin. 3-A FIVE –LAYERS DIAPER A five layers construction present the deal balance of comfort .The first layer is an interior shell of 100% cotton, The second layer is 100% synthetic nonwoven bonded mono-filament which allows moisture to pass through to the lower layers , the third layer is a 100% cotton wetting pad for maximum additional absorbency with minimum bulk , next is a layer of terry cloth in a cotton/ polyester blend , for extra absorbency. The fifth layer five is also a terry cloth of similar blend to give a panty-like dressed appearance. SANITARY TOWELS There are no standard specifications for producing sanitary towels. A small scale reusable sanitary towels tend to consist of a piece of absorbent cotton fabric. Plain woven cotton or terry cloth is appropriate for reusable sanitary towels where a wrapping absorbent cotton wool with gauze are used to form a pad, and a thin, impermeable layers such as polyurethane, is applied to one side of the cotton wool pad, the pad is then wrapped in a piece of gauze or introduced into a thin , open knitted tube and stitched or knotted at both ends and packaged. ANTI-THROMBOSIS STOCKINGS (SURGICAL HOSIERY) Surgical hosiery materials possess compression characteristics and are used for various applications, including support to the limb , treatment of venous disorders, protection in physical actives.. etc ,where it estimated that 20% of people suffer from problem associated with veins in their legs which can lead to disorders such as varicose, oedemas and thrombosis. Anti-thrombosis stockings are used as a means of preventing the formation of thrombosis as the compression exerted causes narrowing of the veins in the leg. Anti thrombosis stocking has an almost conical tubular construction–, the innovation anti-thrombosis stocking is that it is now produced in a warp – knitted construction using  a double – face- double – bar Rachel machine. Stockings are used when a thrombosis has already formed and they have to be made to suit each patient individually according to the compression needed.

HEALTH CARE AND HYGIENE PRODUCTS DR.IBRAHIM .G.,E. PROTECTIVE HEALTH CARE GARMENTS The purpose of protective health care garments is to protect from contamination by blood and other infection fluids, Protective healthcare textiles include operation and emergency room textiles, barrier products, breath membranes, surgeon and nurse, caps, masks, foot wear , coats.. etcThere are two basic requirements for a protective textile garment, it should be affordable, breathable, comfortable, dependable and effective.The impact of contagious diseases have made hospitals very cautious about protecting fabrics, the medical profession was once concerned mainly with protecting patients from germs, now they must protect them selves. These precautions have caused an increase in demand for medical product stroring. The protective material has to be waterproof but breathable, and it must allow transmission of moisture vapour. They are usually made of polyurethane, polyester or other copolymers. These garments consists of micro porous membranes which provide comfort by allowing body perspiration to be transmitted from the skin surface to the air through a fabric. Health care garments can be woven, knitted or nonwoven. Health care garment could be washable or disposable. Laboratory tests for health care garments include water repellency, lounderability and strength. PRODUCTS USED IN HOSPITALS Products used in hospitals include bedding clothing, shoes covers, cloths incontinence products, cloths and wipes. OPERATING ROOM APPAREL Normal operating room apparel comprises a scrub suit, consisting of trousers and short sleeved tunic, or a dress, this is clean but normally sterile and will normally be worn all day. The traditional material for operating – room apparel is woven cotton dyed in green, in some cases. Woven cotton has the advantages of being easy to launder and sterilize and relatively comfortable to wear, All fabric used for operation room apparel must have antistatic properties. NURSE’S APPAREL Nurse’s apparel is made of conventional fabrics since no specific requirement is needed other than comfort and durability. These fabrics consist of tissue reinforced with a polyester or polypropylene spun- laid web. SURGICAL MASK Masks often have a multiple layers structure to ensure more efficient filtration of the breath while masks are made of three layers. The middle layer consists of extra fine glass fibers or synthetic micro fibers covered on both sides by an acrylic bonded parallel-laid or wet-laid nonwoven fabrics. The inner layer consists of a melt – blown polypropylene and outer layer which consists a spun– bonded viscose web to provide strength and to prevent the loss of polypropylene fibers masks also contain tapes which are sewn to enable them to be tied firmly into place over the nose and mouth. . The performance requirements for surgical face masks are high bacterial filtration capacity, high air permeability , light weight and non-allergenic.

SURGICAL CAPS Surgical caps are often made of cellulosic Fibers, with the paralled– laid or spun laid process ,but commonly for surgical spun the surgical cap made in one piece or from two or three pieces sewn to give a better fit OVERSHOES Overshoes are usually made in one piece or may by made from two or three pieces sewn together to give better fit. Elastic threads are sewn into the edges of the openings to provide simple efficient closure. GOWNS Gowns manufacturers are responding to higher demands of protection by producing products with increased barrier level. Gowns are often made from polyester cellulose and composite polypropylene fibers, and are supplied in sterile packs and have the additional advantages of being used in the event of major emergency .Woven cotton fabrics are traditionally used in some surgical gowns because cotton does not produce static electrical charges that can build up and produce electric sparks, however it may release particles from the surgeon and also generate high levels of dust , also non woven surgical gowns are used to prevent sources of contamination. The general requirements for surgical gowns include liquid repellency, bacterial barrier properties, and aesthetics flame resistance static safety and toxicity. The fabrics should also be sufficiently flexible, adequate strength tear resistance and comfort SURGICAL DRAPES Drapes are used in the operating room to cover patients and the area around him to reduce the risk of the wound becoming contaminated by skin cells shed by the patient. Drapes are made from woven cotton or linen, and usually supplied cut to a variety of different shapes appropriate to different surgical procedures and contain an opening according to the position of the surgical site. They could also be made of non- woven fabrics are used as backing material on one or both sides of a film, while the film is impermeable to bacteria. Nonwoven backing is high absorbent to both body perspiration and secretions from the wound. The general requirements for surgical drapes include liquid repellency bacterial barrier, conformability, tactile softness, comfort, strength, fiber tie-down properties lint propensity and abrasion resistance, flame resistance, static safety and toxicity. BEDDING The bedding is used in the sence of body whose breath is large in comparison with its thickness, the flexible web may be woven or laid down as a nonwoven fabric. It is preferred that the web be permeable to aid the deposition besides that it can allow access of air to the encased limb .The web most preferably has a porous structure and in the case of woven or non- woven fabrics, the porosity of the web may be conditioned by the method of manufacture, so that this particular characteristic may be predetermined to insulate the burned tissues of the patient form it patient for the purpose of covering him to prevent exposure may be required it. WIPES AND CLOTHS Cloths and wipes are used to clean wounds prior to wound dressing or to treat rashes and burns. The wiper is produced by forming a web of nonwoven materials in desired conventional fashion, saturating the web either before or after dying with a liquid solution of the binder material in solvent to cause a pick up by the web of a desired amount of the binder material. The wipe must be capable of retaining .The premoistened wiper which is capable of providing high wet strength until used, the premoistened wiper has a nonwoven web substrate  of fibers which are bonded together by polymeric adhesive. SURGICAL SWABS A swab is an absorbent textile pad used in general surgery to prepare the site of the operation to absorb excess blood and body fluids, to pack body cavities during surgery and to clean the incision prior to suturing .The traditional swab which is made of cotton gauze suffers from disadvantages despite its widespread use. The advantages of traditional swabs, in particular are their high absorbency and non linting properties -   LINT Lint is a plain weave cotton fabric that is frequently used in the treatment of mild burns. Lint consists of 50/50 polyester blended and tightly woven into fabric. It has a durable, moisture resistance and static control finish, it has also proven to be comfortable to wear. Other properties include abrasion resistance, good tensile strength, fast drying and reusability - SURGICAL TOWELS Nonwoven disposable towel have high absorptive capacity and excellent drying ability with minimum of moisture strike- through. Surgeon may have from about 15 to about 30 grams, of water remaining on his hands and arms after the scrubbing operation, this towel has an absorptive capacity of about 4 to about 7grams of water and weights, about 30 grams surgeon’s. The towel is must be demonstrating excellent abrasion resistance, strength, sturdiness and at the same time it must be soft. INCONTINENCE AND HYGIENE PRODUCTS Incontinence is normally regarded as a problem of the very young, the very old and the disabled or bedridden. There are number of incontinence suffer of all ages, the main problem is that of urinary incontinence with stress (caused by laughing, sneezing extertion or emotional upset ). Product designs need to meet the different levels of incontinence according to different levels of activity from fully active to chair bound or bedridden. Incontinence protection must not leak, or cause discomfort or skin irritation to the patient. NAPPIES (DIAPERS) The types of nappies or diapers vary greatly through out the world from reusable cloth to the modern disposable type. ( Disposable diapers and similar have been manufactured using one or more layers of cellulose tissue which makes the diaper relatively stiff . Reusable nappy is made from woven terry cloth which is a woven, warp-pile cotton fabric coverd on both sides with uncut loops . The cloth can vary in thickness and weight according to the thickness and quality of the yarn used and the density of the structure . Reusable nappies need to be changed ,washed and dried. Reusable napes can be classed into : 1-ONE LAYER DIAPER One-layer diaper has the problem that all the moisture stays evenly distributed through the diaper so that a high amount of urine remains in direct contact with the baby’sskin and can cause diaper rash. 2-MULTI LAYER DIAPER Multi-layer diaper using 100% cotton for skin contact layer and synthetic nonabsorbent layer of polyester or equivalent to provide a wicking action to draw and hold moisture away from the skin. 3-A FIVE –LAYERS DIAPER A five layers construction present the deal balance of comfort .The first layer is an interior shell of 100% cotton, The second layer is 100% synthetic nonwoven bonded mono-filament which allows moisture to pass through to the lower layers , the third layer is a 100% cotton wetting pad for maximum additional absorbency with minimum bulk , next is a layer of terry cloth in a cotton/ polyester blend , for extra absorbency. The fifth layer five is also a terry cloth of similar blend to give a panty-like dressed appearance. SANITARY TOWELS There are no standard specifications for producing sanitary towels. A small scale reusable sanitary towels tend to consist of a piece of absorbent cotton fabric. Plain woven cotton or terry cloth is appropriate for reusable sanitary towels where a wrapping absorbent cotton wool with gauze are used to form a pad, and a thin, impermeable layers such as polyurethane, is applied to one side of the cotton wool pad, the pad is then wrapped in a piece of gauze or introduced into a thin , open knitted tube and stitched or knotted at both ends and packaged. ANTI-THROMBOSIS STOCKINGS (SURGICAL HOSIERY) Surgical hosiery materials possess compression characteristics and are used for various applications, including support to the limb , treatment of venous disorders, protection in physical actives.. etc ,where it estimated that 20% of people suffer from problem associated with veins in their legs which can lead to disorders such as varicose, oedemas and thrombosis. Anti-thrombosis stockings are used as a means of preventing the formation of thrombosis as the compression exerted causes narrowing of the veins in the leg. Anti thrombosis stocking has an almost conical tubular construction–, the innovation anti-thrombosis stocking is that it is now produced in a warp – knitted construction using  a double – face- double – bar Rachel machine. Stockings are used when a thrombosis has already formed and they have to be made to suit each patient individually according to the compression needed.

'''HEALTH CARE AND HYGIENE PRODUCTS DR.IBRAHIM .G.,E. PROTECTIVE HEALTH CARE GARMENTS The purpose of protective health care garments is to protect from contamination by blood and other infection fluids, Protective healthcare textiles include operation and emergency room textiles, barrier products, breath membranes, surgeon and nurse, caps, masks, foot wear , coats.. etcThere are two basic requirements for a protective textile garment, it should be affordable, breathable, comfortable, dependable and effective.The impact of contagious diseases have made hospitals very cautious about protecting fabrics, the medical profession was once concerned mainly with protecting patients from germs, now they must protect them selves. These precautions have caused an increase in demand for medical product stroring. The protective material has to be waterproof but breathable, and it must allow transmission of moisture vapour. They are usually made of polyurethane, polyester or other copolymers. These garments consists of micro porous membranes which provide comfort by allowing body perspiration to be transmitted from the skin surface to the air through a fabric. Health care garments can be woven, knitted or nonwoven. Health care garment could be washable or disposable. Laboratory tests for health care garments include water repellency, lounderability and strength. PRODUCTS USED IN HOSPITALS Products used in hospitals include bedding clothing, shoes covers, cloths incontinence products, cloths and wipes. OPERATING ROOM APPAREL Normal operating room apparel comprises a scrub suit, consisting of trousers and short sleeved tunic, or a dress, this is clean but normally sterile and will normally be worn all day. The traditional material for operating – room apparel is woven cotton dyed in green, in some cases. Woven cotton has the advantages of being easy to launder and sterilize and relatively comfortable to wear, All fabric used for operation room apparel must have antistatic properties. NURSE’S APPAREL Nurse’s apparel is made of conventional fabrics since no specific requirement is needed other than comfort and durability. These fabrics consist of tissue reinforced with a polyester or polypropylene spun- laid web. SURGICAL MASK Masks often have a multiple layers structure to ensure more efficient filtration of the breath while masks are made of three layers. The middle layer consists of extra fine glass fibers or synthetic micro fibers covered on both sides by an acrylic bonded parallel-laid or wet-laid nonwoven fabrics. The inner layer consists of a melt – blown polypropylene and outer layer which consists a spun– bonded viscose web to provide strength and to prevent the loss of polypropylene fibers masks also contain tapes which are sewn to enable them to be tied firmly into place over the nose and mouth. . The performance requirements for surgical face masks are high bacterial filtration capacity, high air permeability , light weight and non-allergenic.

SURGICAL CAPS Surgical caps are often made of cellulosic Fibers, with the paralled– laid or spun laid process ,but commonly for surgical spun the surgical cap made in one piece or from two or three pieces sewn to give a better fit OVERSHOES Overshoes are usually made in one piece or may by made from two or three pieces sewn together to give better fit. Elastic threads are sewn into the edges of the openings to provide simple efficient closure. GOWNS Gowns manufacturers are responding to higher demands of protection by producing products with increased barrier level. Gowns are often made from polyester cellulose and composite polypropylene fibers, and are supplied in sterile packs and have the additional advantages of being used in the event of major emergency .Woven cotton fabrics are traditionally used in some surgical gowns because cotton does not produce static electrical charges that can build up and produce electric sparks, however it may release particles from the surgeon and also generate high levels of dust , also non woven surgical gowns are used to prevent sources of contamination. The general requirements for surgical gowns include liquid repellency, bacterial barrier properties, and aesthetics flame resistance static safety and toxicity. The fabrics should also be sufficiently flexible, adequate strength tear resistance and comfort SURGICAL DRAPES Drapes are used in the operating room to cover patients and the area around him to reduce the risk of the wound becoming contaminated by skin cells shed by the patient. Drapes are made from woven cotton or linen, and usually supplied cut to a variety of different shapes appropriate to different surgical procedures and contain an opening according to the position of the surgical site. They could also be made of non- woven fabrics are used as backing material on one or both sides of a film, while the film is impermeable to bacteria. Nonwoven backing is high absorbent to both body perspiration and secretions from the wound. The general requirements for surgical drapes include liquid repellency bacterial barrier, conformability, tactile softness, comfort, strength, fiber tie-down properties lint propensity and abrasion resistance, flame resistance, static safety and toxicity.

BEDDING The bedding is used in the sence of body whose breath is large in comparison with its thickness, the flexible web may be woven or laid down as a nonwoven fabric. It is preferred that the web be permeable to aid the deposition besides that it can allow access of air to the encased limb .The web most preferably has a porous structure and in the case of woven or non- woven fabrics, the porosity of the web may be conditioned by the method of manufacture, so that this particular characteristic may be predetermined to insulate the burned tissues of the patient form it patient for the purpose of covering him to prevent exposure may be required it. WIPES AND CLOTHS Cloths and wipes are used to clean wounds prior to wound dressing or to treat rashes and burns. The wiper is produced by forming a web of nonwoven materials in desired conventional fashion, saturating the web either before or after dying with a liquid solution of the binder material in solvent to cause a pick up by the web of a desired amount of the binder material. The wipe must be capable of retaining .The premoistened wiper which is capable of providing high wet strength until used, the premoistened wiper has a nonwoven web substrate  of fibers which are bonded together by polymeric adhesive. SURGICAL SWABS A swab is an absorbent textile pad used in general surgery to prepare the site of the operation to absorb excess blood and body fluids, to pack body cavities during surgery and to clean the incision prior to suturing .The traditional swab which is made of cotton gauze suffers from disadvantages despite its widespread use. The advantages of traditional swabs, in particular are their high absorbency and non linting properties -   LINT Lint is a plain weave cotton fabric that is frequently used in the treatment of mild burns. Lint consists of 50/50 polyester blended and tightly woven into fabric. It has a durable, moisture resistance and static control finish, it has also proven to be comfortable to wear. Other properties include abrasion resistance, good tensile strength, fast drying and reusability - SURGICAL TOWELS Nonwoven disposable towel have high absorptive capacity and excellent drying ability with minimum of moisture strike- through. Surgeon may have from about 15 to about 30 grams, of water remaining on his hands and arms after the scrubbing operation, this towel has an absorptive capacity of about 4 to about 7grams of water and weights, about 30 grams surgeon’s. The towel is must be demonstrating excellent abrasion resistance, strength, sturdiness and at the same time it must be soft. INCONTINENCE AND HYGIENE PRODUCTS Incontinence is normally regarded as a problem of the very young, the very old and the disabled or bedridden. There are number of incontinence suffer of all ages, the main problem is that of urinary incontinence with stress (caused by laughing, sneezing extertion or emotional upset ). Product designs need to meet the different levels of incontinence according to different levels of activity from fully active to chair bound or bedridden. Incontinence protection must not leak, or cause discomfort or skin irritation to the patient. NAPPIES (DIAPERS) The types of nappies or diapers vary greatly through out the world from reusable cloth to the modern disposable type. ( Disposable diapers and similar have been manufactured using one or more layers of cellulose tissue which makes the diaper relatively stiff . Reusable nappy is made from woven terry cloth which is a woven, warp-pile cotton fabric coverd on both sides with uncut loops . The cloth can vary in thickness and weight according to the thickness and quality of the yarn used and the density of the structure . Reusable nappies need to be changed ,washed and dried. Reusable napes can be classed into : 1-ONE LAYER DIAPER One-layer diaper has the problem that all the moisture stays evenly distributed through the diaper so that a high amount of urine remains in direct contact with the baby’sskin and can cause diaper rash. 2-MULTI LAYER DIAPER Multi-layer diaper using 100% cotton for skin contact layer and synthetic nonabsorbent layer of polyester or equivalent to provide a wicking action to draw and hold moisture away from the skin. 3-A FIVE –LAYERS DIAPER A five layers construction present the deal balance of comfort .The first layer is an interior shell of 100% cotton, The second layer is 100% synthetic nonwoven bonded mono-filament which allows moisture to pass through to the lower layers , the third layer is a 100% cotton wetting pad for maximum additional absorbency with minimum bulk , next is a layer of terry cloth in a cotton/ polyester blend , for extra absorbency. The fifth layer five is also a terry cloth of similar blend to give a panty-like dressed appearance. SANITARY TOWELS There are no standard specifications for producing sanitary towels. A small scale reusable sanitary towels tend to consist of a piece of absorbent cotton fabric. Plain woven cotton or terry cloth is appropriate for reusable sanitary towels where a wrapping absorbent cotton wool with gauze are used to form a pad, and a thin, impermeable layers such as polyurethane, is applied to one side of the cotton wool pad, the pad is then wrapped in a piece of gauze or introduced into a thin , open knitted tube and stitched or knotted at both ends and packaged. ANTI-THROMBOSIS STOCKINGS (SURGICAL HOSIERY) Surgical hosiery materials possess compression characteristics and are used for various applications, including support to the limb , treatment of venous disorders, protection in physical actives.. etc ,where it estimated that 20% of people suffer from problem associated with veins in their legs which can lead to disorders such as varicose, oedemas and thrombosis. Anti-thrombosis stockings are used as a means of preventing the formation of thrombosis as the compression exerted causes narrowing of the veins in the leg. Anti thrombosis stocking has an almost conical tubular construction–, the innovation anti-thrombosis stocking is that it is now produced in a warp – knitted construction using  a double – face- double – bar Rachel machine. Stockings are used when a thrombosis has already formed and they have to be made to suit each patient individually according to the compression needed. '--IbrahimGE (talk) 00:52, 19 April 2013 (UTC)Italic text''