User talk:Katelyn Warburton/Bilingualism

=Becoming Bilingual= The learning process for a first language must be understood in order to comprehend second language acquisition. In a first language (L1), a lexical entry contains semantic, syntactic, morphological, and formal (phonological and orthographic) information about a lexical item. A lexical entry is believed to be made up of two main components, the lemma and lexeme. The lemma contains important semantic and syntactic information about a word; semantics include the meaning of the word, phrase, or sentence and syntax involves grammar, how words are arranged in a sentence, and overall structure. Lexeme contains morphological and formal information, such as morphological variants of a word, spelling, and pronunciation.

The learning process for a second language involves lexical information that is different from the L1. There are several constraints for individuals pursuing second language learning. First, both the quality and quantity of the input of the target language. During the learning process of a second language, learners often lack sufficient, highly contextualized input from their new, target language. This increases the difficulty of learning a new language because learners are unable to extract and internalize semantic, syntactic, and morphological information about a word which hinders their ability to create a lexical entry. A second challenge is that the conceptual or semantic system in which a L2 is learned is associated with the L1 system. Learners tend to rely on their L1 system by using translations from L2 to L1. This dependency often hinders the language learning process by decreasing necessity and motivation in attention to contextual cues for extracting meaning. In most cases, L1 concepts and semantic details will be activated therefore blocking the creation of new meanings of L2 words in the existing semantic system.

In contrast to learning L1 development, which is focused on learning vocabulary to acquire meaning and other properties of the word, learning L2 vocabulary is based primarily on memorization of the word. Although L1 words are learned as semantic and formal entities, L2 words are formal entities only because they rely on associations with L1 translations, to determine the meaning of the word. There are three main stages in lexical development of L2. In the first stage of L2 learning, L2 words rely on the previously discussed activation of L1 words. When an L1 words is activated, the semantic, syntactic, and morphological information is available to assist in comprehension of the L2 word. As a learner has more experiences using their L2, stronger associations form between L1 and L2. These associations result in simultaneous activation of L2 words and lemma information (semantic and syntactic details) of L1 counterparts. A word is at the second stage of development when L1 lemma information becomes copied into the lemma space of an L2 word. The information from L1 can therefore mediate the L2 word processing although there are no morphological specifications in the lexical entry. The lemma mediation stage refers to the mediating role that lemmas of L1 play in the use of L2 words. The third and final stage of L2 lexical development is reached when the semantic, syntactic, and morphological specifications of an L2 word are integrated into the lexical entry; therefore, this is referred to as the L2 integration stage.

=Second Language Acquisition= Individuals who are attempting to learn a second language experience a heavy influence from their first language during the early stages of learning as well as throughout the bilingual experience. Eventually, the second language (L2) also influences the first language (L1) in ways that can change the native language. L1 modulations occur for both lexicon and grammar, and there is evidence for convergence when the languages conflict. Because native language can change in response to an increase in proficiency of L2, there is evidence for high plasticity within human language. The neural systems utilized by the two languages are the same. The differences are found in the greater cognitive demands of the L2, which is less proficient and requires more attention. The establishment of the bilingual language system creates the conditions for new language learning and enhances cognitive control of all languages spoken. Increased skill in L2 decreases dependence on L1 and allows L2 to function autonomously.

=Implications of Bilingualism= Bilingual speakers who are proficient in both of their languages, balanced bilinguals, experience the greatest benefits from speaking two languages. Balanced bilinguals have higher levels of executive control due to the constant practice of keeping two languages separate in their everyday lives. Balanced bilinguals have improved control of attention and are better able to differentiate and respond to competing cues.

Students
Several researchers have noted the potential harms of being bilingual in an academic setting for young children. Immigrant students often have different proficiencies in their native language versus the institutional language in their new home. Their lack of efficiency in the institutional language results in serious academic problems for students in both elementary and secondary level education. Furthermore, bilingual students risk being detained up to two or three times more than monolingual classmates. Therefore, the main hindrance of speaking two languages comes from a lack of proficiency in both languages. According to the threshold hypothesis, cognitive disadvantages come from low language proficiency. If a bilingual has deficits in both languages they are refereed to as semilinguals or weak bilinguals and often experience the most cognitive costs, or additional mental efforts that lead to disadvantages in academic performance.

Educators
In order to maximize the benefits of bilingualism for students, educators must be aware of how to help students in the classroom. As the population of bilinguals continues to increase, it becomes even more important for educators to have the knowledge and skill base to work effectively with children and their families. Many state and national entities have worked with professional organizations to create new standards for educators that stress diversity, culture, linguistic diversity, second language learning, and how to work with families whose native language does not match that of the school population.

More specifically, six main areas have been identified as necessary components for teacher preparation programs. First, educators must understand language development. Without a complete understanding of the mechanisms of language development and overall purpose of language as a system of communication, educators will not be able to make grounded pedagogical choices. Second, educators must recognize the relationship between language and culture. Research shows that language development occurs withing the context of a child's home culture and overall vales and beliefs influence language choice. Without an understanding of the role of language in maintaining a healthy ethnic identity, children and educators may struggle to find common ground in the classroom. In addition, while learning a new language children also learn a new culture. Therefore, the learning process goes beyond language and incorporates new social rules, beliefs, and values that are different than their native beliefs. Thirdly, teachers and other educators must develop skills and abilities to work effectively with bilingual students. This includes high-quality instruction that requires better trained childhood personnel, small child to educators ratios, strong supervision, and high standards of expectations. Another component is developing abilities of meaningful assessment of bilingual students. These assessments must account for age, motivation, personality, first language proficiency, program/school factors, sociocultural factors, and incongruence between home and school environment. Educators must also develop a sense of professionalism that includes a set of ethnics that direct behaviors and practices. Lastly, educators must work with students' families to establish good communication and collaboration skills which can bridge the gap between home and school cultures to promote school readiness.

Emotional and Behavioral Health
Cognitive benefits are often the focus of literature on bilingualism, but there are also several emotional and behavioral health benefits. Children of immigrant status often struggle with transitioning to a nonfamilial social environment and new cultural environment. Several negative emotional effects for these children are the result of failure feedback due to interactions with native speaking students. Children often compare their cultural identities and abilities with other students, which results in behavior or peer problems and potential increases the probability of dropout and/or delinquency.

Bilingual children often experience positive "cultural capital" in both their families and communities. Bilingual children's understanding of multiple languages and cultures helps them to appreciate diversity amongst their peers and those in their social environment. In addition, immigrant children who are able to maintain their parents' language helps to improve the parent-child relationship and inherently benefits both the child's self-esteem and mental health.

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