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Child development psychology is the scientific study of changes that occur in infants and children. Cognition is processes of the mind that lets us know things. It includes all kinds of mental activity. Mental processes include everything from remembering, symbolizing, planning and problem solving. These are all things we do on a daily basis. . Cognitive development is the development of intelligence and mental processes involving problem solving, which begins in infancy. Throughout a child’s life, he/she is influenced by various experiences depending on the type of the environment one is being raised. During this time, children mature—both mentally and physically; this process is called child development.

Early Concepts Related to Childhood
Although child development is a recent study, society has constantly tried to understand the causes and conditions that lead to cognitive development and how this shapes how our lives are lived today. Throughout history, research shows how differently those in previous generations had lived compared to those who live now in terms of when their cognitive development is discontinued and how people grow in intelligence.

Protestant Reformation
The Protestant Reformation is a religious movement. People tried to change the churches from Catholic to Protestant. During the Protestant Reformation, children’s cognitive development was very important because they were thought to be somewhat at risk. Because of that, they were to be kept from the temptations and other evils of the world. Children were to have a lot of knowledge about the Bible. The government viewed childhood as a sacred time because as they grew up, they would be able to keep society out of danger from the devil. At the end of the 18th century, medical doctors became interested in the development processes of children’s brains and body. They believed children were unique because of the development of their organs (as they are unable to be treated with the same medicine or same dose of medicine as adults) and how they processed and understood information.

Industrial Revolution
Following the Protestant Reformation when the children’s cognitive development depended on Biblical practices, children during the Industrial Revolution developed under harsh conditions and therefore, their cognitive development was inhibited. As time continued and the economy fell, almost every family member in each household was told to work and childhood was rushed. They were also forced into work instead of being educated. Since people lived in harsh conditions and children were put to work earlier, therefore they grew up faster, and “childhood was lost”. They were put to work in order to keep their families above the poverty line; children as young as three years old were put to work and were underpaid.

Darwin
Following the Industrial Revolution, Charles Darwin observed his children in order to better understand how they learn and function. Throughout his children’s lives, he was able to see how their self-perception changed as they increased in self-consciousness. Self perception is how a person understands themselves. He understood each child is different so he monitored all of his children’s lives. He did this in order that he gets an overview of how children are influenced and what kinds of things influence them.

Freud
Sigmund Freud was a psychologist born in Moravia. . His main thought of development revolved around sexual orientation. He also formed ideas about how children grow in the different stages of psychosexual development. Freud never actually worked with children, but he was able to come up with these theories. . Another one of his main ideas about development was on the id, ego, and super ego. These are related to how personality develops. These were developed when the children gained life experiences. He thought the stages of development were fixed. If one did not get passed a certain stage, that person would be stuck in that stage until it is satisfied.

Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory of Children
There are two psychologists well known for their theories on their stages of development in children. One of these people is Jean Piaget, a very intelligent man who excelled in his studies from a very young age. He originally intended to study philosophy  and biology, but then turned to psychology. He first started his study of child development when he met Simon, who used intelligence tests on children. This is something that Piaget did not care for, so he started interviewing his subjects, children. He was trying to figure out how children reasoned. His interest in studying how thought processes happened led him to create the field called genetic epistemology, which is the study of the development of knowledge. After studying his subjects more, he noted that there were stages of cognitive development. There are four main stages that each have different characteristics. .

Sensorimotor Stage
This stage begins at birth and lasts until about two years of age. . In this stage, knowledge of the world is very limited and action based. The infant relies on sense and motor skills to learn about their world. About halfway through this stage, infants develop object permanence, the understanding that objects have a continued existence when they disappear from view. For example, if you show a child a toy, and then hide the toy underneath a blanket, if the child has developed object permanence, they will know that the toy still exists under the blanket. Children who have not yet developed this will think the toy is gone. They have the idea that if it is out of sight, it is out of mind. Developing object permanence shows that a child’s memory is developing as well. In this stage, an infant’s motor skills also develop. The infant relies on motor skills to touch things and would begin to realize that their actions make a reaction. For example, if they squeeze a rubber toy duck, and it makes a ‘quack’ noise, the infant will soon realize they can recreate the noise by doing the same action. Finally, in the last parts of this stage, the infant is developing mental representation, which is the ability to keep an image in their mind for a period of time. So for example, if the infant sees a new toy and does not know how to work the toy. But after learning how it works, they can remember how to play with it for the next time they see it. As one can see, the behavior of an infant in this stage is organized around its sensory and motor effects. .

Pre-operational Stage
This stage begins around two years of age to about seven years. . The way children in this stage think is very egocentric, or all about themselves. . It is hard for them to think of things in other people’s perspective. Since they have developed a mental representation, children are able to start using symbols to communicate and play. . A symbol is anything is used to represent something else. So, for example, a child may use a box for a table instead of what a box is actually meant to be used for. Sometimes this is called make-believe play. There are many benefits to make-believe play. A child will learn social skills and develop their cognitive skills. . There are many studies that show cognition mental activities improve with make believe play. Some of the many improvements are longer attention span, learning languages better, and being more creative. . A fact about this stages that is still experimented and replicated in all children is their inability to conserve liquids. Conservation is the idea that physical things can remain the same even if you change their appearances. . In this experiment, children are given two bottles, one tall and skinny and the other short and round. However, these two bottles can hold the same amount of liquid. A child in this stage can not understand that concept. They assume that because the first container is taller, it can hold more liquid. However, children in the next stage begin to master this concept.

Concrete Operations Stage
The concrete operations stages starts at about seven years old and lasts until about eleven years old. . This stage is characterized by the child’s ability to solve problems logically. The child's thinking becomes more logical and organized. The way they think is also more flexible, meaning they have an easier time imagining different things. They are able to use the symbols they have learned previously and use them to help solve problems. Also in this stage, children are able to conserve numbers, lengths, area, liquid, and more. This is a clear example that their thought process is more mature. . Like stated in the previous example, children are able to know that a tall skinny container does not necessarily mean it is able to hold more liquid. Another example of a child that has understood the concept of conservation is if you have two rows of five coins, and in one row you spread out the coins an inch apart and the other row, the coins are not spaced out, the child will still be able to figure out there are the same amount of coins in each row. Just because one row is longer because it is spaced out does not mean there are more. Throughout this stage, children get better at solving these problems, and by the end of this stage, around nine or ten years old, they should be able to master this concept. Throughout this stage, their thinking becomes less egocentric. They are able to understand the way other people think and see other people’s perspective. In some research done by psychologists show that concrete operational thinking depends on how children are raised. . Different villages or societies often show that concrete operational thinking is delayed. The concept of conservation is not usually mastered until later on. . This example shows that it is important for children to participate in activities that will help them grow cognitively. The experience of attending school helps a child master skills like conservation. .

Formal Operations Stage
This is the last stage that Piaget created to describe cognitive development in children. This stage begins at age eleven and continues on. . At this age, children are able to think logically and abstractly. Abstract thinking is a key characteristic of this stage. The child also becomes more concerned with hypothetical and ideological thinking and problem solving.One example to show this new level of thinking is something called hypothetico-deductive reasoning. When the child is faced with a problem, they will hypothesize way to get an outcome. Then, they will use deduction to come to a conclusion. Then, the child will sort out and combine variables to see which of their hypothesis were correct. An example of this is Piaget's pendulum problem. The child is given different length strings attached to weights. The child was asked to figure out the speeds that the pendulum swings. They may come up with four hypotheses: one about the length of the string, another about how heavy the weight is, another about how high or low the string is hung and lastly, how much force you should use to push the weight. Children who have mastered the formal operations thinking are able to test each variable separate, while keeping in mind the other three. .They can separate the effects of each variable. The person is able to investigate and solve problems in careful and systematic ways. Some parts of the formal operations stage is very high level thinking, and not everyone reaches this stage, or masters everything within this stage. . Even many adults do not fully achieve everything in this stage. In a study done by Lehman and Nisbett, they found that taking college courses improves formal reasoning. . People usually do not think abstractly unless they are given guidance to do so. People need to also have the opportunity to solve these types of hypothetical problems.

Erikson's Psychosocial Development of Children
There are many different types of cognition. In this section, social cognition is addressed. Social cognition is how children understand their social surroundings. . Social cognition relates to Piaget's understanding of cognition. Social cognition covers how children think about and interpret their experiences. There are a few overlaps between cognitive development and social cognition. . Social cognitive thinking also begins from concrete thinking to abstract. Social cognition also develops as children get older. Social cognitive thinking also becomes more complex, similar to formal operations. A psychologist that had a very influential impact on this aspect of childhood development is Erik Erikson. He studied very hard in Germany and eventually moved to America. He had a passion for the study of the development of identity. Identity is a major personality achievement. Everyone needs to figure out their own identities. If a child has a good cognitive development, they are able to form their identities. He started out changing Sigmund Freud’s work on the theory of stages. He expanded on the stages, forming eight instead of Freud’s five stages. He believes that childhood is very important in developing personality. Personality develops as a young child but continues to develop throughout life. He says that each stage is characterized by a different psychological crisis that has to be resolved by the individual before they can move on to the next stage. . We will discuss the first five stages since they deal closely to childhood development. Five of the eight stages will be described below.

Stage 1: Basic Trust vs Mistrust
This stage takes place between the ages zero and one. In this stage, the infant heavily relies on the mother. The infant builds trust depending on the relationship of the infant with the mother. If the child’s needs with the mother is met, the infant will have a secure attachment with the parents. The child can trust in their parents and that they are reliable and safe. If the child can not develop trust, they develop mistrust. Mistrust leads to the child being suspicious and be cautious about the people in their environment. They still will need to learn to trust the people in their lives. .

Stage 2: Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
In this stage, the child is now a toddler, between the ages of two and three. During this stage, the child’s self confidence and self consciousness develops. The relationship with their parents is also very important. The parents need to encourage the child so that they can develop confidence. This will help them cope with any problems that may come up in the future. The child will learn to be more independent and confident in their choices and actions. Along with self confidence, the emotion of shame develops. If the parents show disapproval towards the child, then they may begin to feel ashamed of their actions. The child may then begin to doubt his or her abilities and decisions. Even though they may not be making huge decision, their doubt can effect how they make choices when they grow up. .

Stage 3: Initiative vs Guilt
The child is now a preschooler, about the ages of three to six. They develop motor skills and interact more with the people in their family. The child needs to learn to take initiative with their actions. Initiative, in this case, means positively responding to the challenges and taking on more responsibility on their own. They now have more responsibility and are more adventurous. Parents should encourage their children to take on initiative. This is time for them to learn and play and use their imagination. Children in this stage also need to learn that not everything they do is correct. If parents do not balance encouragement and discipline, the child may form feelings of guilt. They will not know when the right time to show their independence and use their imagination. .

Stage 4: Industry vs Inferiority
This stage takes place between the ages seven to twelve. During this age, school is very important the development of the child. They are learning to interact with their peers, make things, use tools and technology and learn new skills. This stage is important because if they are successful, they will have a positive outlook on learning and be competent. They will be productive and strive to succeed. If they do not develop all those things listed, they will feel inferior to their peers.

Stage 5: Ego-Identity vs Role Confusion
This stage takes place when the child is considered an adolescent, around the ages twelve to eighteen. This is a very important time in development because they are discovering and trying to answer the question to who they are. Characteristics of this stage is that they are usually concerned with who they are and how others view them. In order to answer the question, “who am I”, Erikson says that the adolescent must have successfully gone through the previous stages. If they are successful in figuring out their identity, then they will not go through role confusion. They would have a strong sense of identity and can move forward with their plans for the future. If they can not figure out their identity and who they are or want to be, they will be in a state of confusion and have a hard time making choices and decisions about their future.

Current Concepts of Cognitive Development
In present day research, both Piaget and Erikson’s research is being further developed. For example, based on Cross-Cultureal Piagestian research, it has been observed that different cultures influence the stages of cognitive development, especially when comparing cultures of agrarian, cultures of farming and other agriculture, and modern societies. In the earlier times, there was little need for modern views of education because they were more in need for agricultural education and therefore, their cognitive development was slower in terms of what they knew mathematically, scientifically and linguistically. In contrast, today’s society calls for structure there are different motives and ideas that enable and encourage American, European and other western cultures to keep their cognitive development growing strong for a long time. In addition, the amount of time children should spend learning and acquiring skills for the workforce lasts far into young adolescence and even into adulthood. Research shows that there are more people staying in school for longer periods of time and therefore increasing their cognitive development over an extended period of time.

Another current concept of cognitive development is how Piaget's ideas are used in modern education. . In recent research, it shows that it is of importance that teachers learn about cognitive psychology because it can help them improve their teaching and help students learn. Piaget described two processes for adaptation: assimilation and accommodation. According to Piaget, the developmental ideal is a balance between assimilation and accommodation, which is also known as equilibrium. . Assimilation is the process of using or transforming the environment so that it can be placed in preexisting cognitive structures. Accommodation is the process of changing cognitive structures in order to accept something from the environment. Children who are in a state of equilibrium are comfortable and can master what they have been taught. Applying Piaget's theory in the classroom can benefit the students and teachers. If teachers know and understand Piaget's theory, they have a better idea of how their students think. By better understanding their audience (the students), they can make their teaching strategies more fitting to the class. Piaget's theory on conservation can also be applied to helping kids learn. Students should be taught so that even if the material changes in the way it is presented, the student can still understand it. . For example, if the student is taught a math problem, even if it is not in the original form of an equation, they should still be able to solve it. Whether it be in the form of a word problem, or using plastic counters, they should be able to solve it.

Technology's Effect on Child Development
There are many reasons why cognitive development has changed in children and one of the causes is the current dependency on technology. In this fast-paced modern world, as the relationship with technology grows, the more people depend on it and pass it down to their children. As a result, technology plays an important part in how children's brains develop and there are both beneficial and harmful results from these changes in education. Since children are becoming more adaptive to the fast paced, “want it-get it” world, their attention spans are different. Instead of having a long attention span that requires a lot of brain activity, they react more to visual stimuli and their attention is broken up and not focused and are given imagination rather than having to imagine it themselves. Along with attention span, studies have shown that continuous reading without any distractions is better retained, understood, and recalled than reading with ads, hyperlinks and other interruptions. Therefore, proving that those who concentrate in their work without engaging in other activities like texting or surfing the web are more likely to comprehend the work they are given. However, it is also observed with the help of technology has improved visual capabilities in terms of reaction time and ability to identify objects among chaos. Therefore, children’s brains are being wired to think differently and remember where to find information rather than what the information there actually is.

Socioeconomic Status Effects on Child Cognitive Development
After building this foundation of knowledge about the history and past theories of child development, we wonder how this effects socioeconomic status. Socioeconomic status a person’s position related to how much money they make, their type of job, what kind of education they have, and where they live. Socioeconomic status is used sometimes to predict how people will act. In other cases, the child’s development can be used to see how it effects their future socioeconomic status. . Based off a child’s development, it will effect future things like their intelligence test scores, their language ability, and more. . Scientists study and research the different parts of the brain for cognitive development. They use electroencephalographic (EEG) activity to measure and check to see the differences in brain functions. In one study, Mexican preschoolers were studied. They found a pattern that the prefrontal cortex of the brain was not matured in those with lower socioeconomic status. . In another study, scientists had middle class people participate in their study. Middle class people are in the average of socioeconomic status. When the scientists manipulated or made it feel like these middle class people were lower and had less power, they were not good at some mental tasks. Some tasks were testing memory, planning, or attention span. It is possible that environmental reminders of a person’s lower socioeconomic status plays a role in how they perform. From there, it is possible that these reminders become habits, and people let the habits define who they are.

There was a study done to see if family poverty had an impact on cognitive development. This study was done at University of Queensland and Master Hospital. . They studied over 7,000 poor moms who gave birth to a baby. They observed them for fourteen years. During this time, one of the most important things that was measured was the mom or family's income. . After the fourteen years, the children were given a questionnaire to fill out. This also included the scores of different psychological tests. They found that poverty experienced at any stage of the child’s development is associated with reduced cognitive development. They also found that exposure to poverty during childhood years is worse than experiencing poverty later in early adolescence. They also found a trend in one of the psychology tests- the low scores were related to a frequent exposure to poverty. .

Bridging Early Concepts to Modern Concepts
Children have learned in multiple ways; however their environment and other factors play a part in how people view childhood and what happens during childhood. Concepts of childhood have changed throughout the years from thinking that children are miniature adults and having separate spiritual and mental lives to thinking children are the basis of society and observing how different aspects of the environment have an effect on how the child brain is wired and functions.