User talk:Markk10

“WHO ARE THE IGBOS?”
In Igbo land, many young people of Igbo tribes are very inquisitive to know the root of their tribe’s origin, and this has become so interesting question that many a Nigerian does ask the same question too. The root of Igbo originality has become too complex that no one could pinpoint its traces. Like my elder of Igbo land did tell, he told me with convincing mind that Igbo people are one of the lost tribes of Israel which he linked to the Ibo Benei Yisreal. As a young boy who relies on history to tell me everything about my tribe, I agreed with him. Later, when I was growing up to becoming full grown man, I observed also that a Nigerian archeologist disapproved Igbo’s being the lost tribe of Israel which he backed with his observation, and this makes my question remerge  again which is : Who are Igbo people?

Geographically, Igbo people can be understood as people that are living in southeastern Nigeria. The people of Igbo tribe speak Igbo which Nigerian archeologists have linked to a language of the Benue-Congo branch of the Niger-Congo language family; this seems true at onset, but it is understood that a language corruption might constitute the linking of Igbo to the Benue-Congo language family; because of this, archeologist might be wrong and their approval of Igbo being linked to the family of Congo-language family also hangs by a tiny thread. The Igbo may be grouped into the following main cultural divisions: northern (Onitsha), southern (Owerri), western (Ika), eastern (Cross River), and northeastern (Abakaliki). Before European colonization, the Igbo were not united as a single people but lived in autonomous local communities. By the mid-20th century, however, a sense of ethnic identity was strongly developed, and the Igbo-dominated Eastern region of Nigeria tried to unilaterally secede from Nigeria in 1967 as the independent nation of Biafra. By the turn of the 21st century the Igbo numbered some 20 million.

Most Igbo traditionally have been subsistence farmers, their staples being yams, cassava, and taro. The other crops they grow include corn (maize), melons, okra, pumpkins, and beans. Among those still engaged in agriculture, men are chiefly responsible for yam cultivation, women for other crops. Land is owned communally by kinship groups and is made available to individuals for farming and building. Some livestock, important as a source of prestige and for use in sacrifices, is kept. The principal exports are palm oil and palm kernels. Trading, local crafts, and wage labour also are important in the Igbo economy, and a high literacy rate has helped many Igbo to become civil servants and business entrepreneurs in the decades after Nigeria gained independence. It is notable that Igbo women engage in trade and are influential in local politics.

Except for the northeastern groups, the Igbo live in rainforest country. Most Igbo occupy villages of dispersed compounds, but in some areas villages are compact. The compound is typically a cluster of huts, each of which constitutes a separate household. Traditionally the village was usually occupied by a patrilineage.

Igbo people are so proud of their culture that they did reject the colonization of the Igbo land by the British Empire. In Igbo land, men are the head of a family, and wives are subjected to sticking to words of their husbands. This does not connote that Husband use the means to maltreat their wives. Many an Igbo man places his pride in his wife because they believe that their wives are the pivot upon which their pride revolves. Some wives know that they are loved, well respected by their husband irrespective of the husband’s being the head of the home, and they stick to it without rejection, but few Igbo woman began to repudiate man’s being head of family. In Igbo land many woman still believe and accord their husband the respect of being the head of the family. At the onset of pre-colonial administration, the largest political unit was the village group, a federation of villages averaging about 5,000 persons. Members of the group shared a common market and meeting place, a tutelary deity, and ancestral cults that supported a tradition of descent from a common ancestor or group of ancestors. Authority in the village group was vested in a council of lineage heads and influential and wealthy men. In the eastern regions these groups tended to form larger political units, including centralized kingdoms and states. Traditional Igbo religion includes belief in a creator god, an earth goddess, and numerous other deities and spirits, as well as a belief in ancestors who protect their living descendants. Revelation of the will of the deities is sought by divinations and oracles. Many Igbo people are now Christians. And in the traditional Jewish culture, men are mostly the head of the family. Igbo culture involves some artistic work of “uzu” in Igbo Ukwu which is linked to Jewish arts and many other culture which they have in common with Israel.

All in all, with Igbo common cultural evidential prove with Jewish culture I have the strong credence in what my elder told me that we Igbo people are one of the lost tribes of Israel since every archeological proves are wrongs. Today, my answer to the question “who are Igbo people?” will always be: Igbo are one of lost tribes of Israel.

“What Happened to our Jerusalem Biafra?”
Biafra is republic of people that reside in the Eastern part of Nigeria who fought for their freedom in late 60’s. The war lasted three years between Republic of Nigeria and Republic of Biafra. Many people died which is estimated at one million, but the real statistics of people’s death is beyond the quote because the Republic of Nigeria and their cohorts do not want the world to know the exact statistics of people that were the victims of their homicide. Apart from what happened in the past, the question remains this: What happen to our Jerusalem Biafra? The question “what happened to our Jerusalem Biafra” enlightens me to throw light on what and who kill our Jerusalem; moreover, it will set  out to rescue Biafrans from the propaganda of governments seeking to justify their roles in the conflict. My pointing out of the considerations which moved other nations to support one side or the other is plausible and informative, but sheds little light on the course of events in Nigeria and Biafra themselves. I have no reason to question anybody’s conclusion that Biafra was not "a puppet of reactionary forces," or the fact that the unequal supply of foreign arms and assistance to the belligerents was crucial to the outcome of the war. (Nor is it startling to learn that foreign powers supported one side or the other only insofar as they felt it would be in their own interests to do so; it hardly seems necessary to demonstrate that nations' policies toward one another are not predicated on altruism.) I do think, however, that to represent the Nigerian war as merely the product of external manipulation, past and present, is highly misleading.

People do not devote quite a bit of space to developments in Nigeria itself, but their discussion of them contains serious omissions. One of the fundamental problems which has plagued the peoples of Nigeria for a long time is that of developing a political structure which is responsive to the needs of an ethnically diverse population, without being subservient to the interests of any one cultural or linguistic group. By and large, Diamond dodges this issue, both in his treatment of Biafra since 1967, and in his historical analysis of the Ibos' role in developing Nigerian nationalism. Apart from a brief reference to "culturally related peoples," (Diamond) ignores the non-Ibo residents of Eastern Nigeria. In making this omission, Diamond passes up an excellent opportunity to clarify a complex and often obscure situation-namely, the position and involvement of non-Ibo peoples in Biafra, and how their role developed during the war and contents himself instead with adding to the cloud of emotional prose which surrounded the whole conflict from its inception. "The Biafrans were struggling to protect a nation in which the culture of the primitive past made itself felt and yet had become part of the modern experience," Diamond makes frequent use of the word "primitive" in his depiction of the history of Ibo relations with the British and the rest of Nigeria. The primitive democracies which crise-crossed the primarily Ibo-speaking East resisted British domination

In spite of the slave and palm oil trades, the local communities in the forests of Eastern Nigeria were able to maintain a substantially primitive character. It should be clear, then, that the Ibos were evolving directly from a "primitive" society to a modern nationality without passing through any significant archaic phase, and thereby conceived the modern Nigerian nation as one that should be both universal and egalitarian. One sensed, under the social surface of Biafra the primitive pulse of Ibo adaptability. In other words, Diamond seems to conceive of the modern Ibo as a sort of national Minerva springing full-blown from the head of her aboriginal parent; the fact that her passage was unsullied by contact with various forms of "archaic," hierarchical social organization insures the purity of her present political wisdom.

Shades of the Noble Savage? I'm afraid so. Diamond does not do the Ibo the familiar disservice of expecting them to evolve in our own political image; he goes one step further and traces their "emergence" in terms of the romantic images of Western political utopianism. This makes for inspiring reading, but sheds little light on the realities of Nigerian or Biafran life. For example, Diamond dwells on the Ibos' "attempts at self-validation and self-improvement" which led them rapidly to acquire Western education and to settle "as technicians, professionals, traders, and civil servants among a people of different culture and inferior formal education…." He also emphasizes their role as "the primary architects of Nigerian freedom..(Whose) conception was that of an independent, democratic, economically sovereign, unitary state?" But he never bothers to develop one obvious implication of these arguments-namely, that had the Ibo succeeded in creating a unitary Nigerian state, they would have controlled it, ipso facto. Were the "routinely corrupt and nepotic Northern hierarchy" the only people in Nigeria who objected to this prospect? The events of 1966 suggest not, just as the ready acceptance by many non-Ibo-speaking people in the Southeast and Rivers States of an early return to Nigerian control suggests that they had mixed feelings concerning their prospects in a predominantly Ibo Biafra.

Diamond criticizes those who would argue that Biafra's secession simply pointed the way to debilitating "Balkanization" of the African continent, and assures us that the Biafrans were "nation-builders" and "pan-Africanists," not "Balkanizes." But it is not clear from Diamond's discussion in what way Ibo nationalism differs from the familiar notion of self-determination, or how Ibo self-determination was to be reconciled with the self-determining impulses of other peoples, either in Biafra or in a unitary Nigeria. He fails to show why, in a Biafran or Nigerian or African context, self-determination should not be expected to lead to Balkanization, just as he does not explain how "nationalism" is the same thing as "pan-Africanism" Thus, Diamond's essay is unconvincing, both as an analysis of the internal problems of Nigeria and Biafra, and as a prescription for African political development

“Crying of my People”
In the literature of books of government, Democracy is government of the people by the people for the people, but in the seats of Nigerian government the democracy is seen as this: The government of wealthy, influential men who are in position for squandering the “national cake” that is meant for the masses. They selfishly pay much regard to their family at the expense of the masses who they are misleading, not leading. Such military government that is baptized democracy to deceive the world has subjected people to shading tears every day without hope of change: This is the “Crying of my people” that have understood life as pendulum bob that swings only to negativity, not positivity due paralyzed effect of bad governance of visionless leaders who do not plan for better tomorrow in beautifully unorganized country “Nigeria” that is heading for crash despite Nigerian being one of oil rich countries in World including other things such as : Cocoa, palm oil, coal tar, Limestone and granite, Gold, tin, Cement, Uranium.

Recently, the pendulum powered by ethnic, political and religious rival engines has been swinging and beating the drums of instability, uncertainty and chaos in Nigeria. Ethnic militias and activists are making one demand or another, from true federalism that would allow for resource control to complete break-up of the country. This is not surprising considering the fact that Nigeria has operated on the aggregate, an unjust and oppressive system since its existence as a Nation.

Nigerian federal system though designed after the U.S. structure is flawed as it failed to adopt the major ingredients that made the U.S. a success which include resource control and residency. Control of natural resources by the federal government has negated an economy of comparative advantage where states would have been producing products and commodities they have competitiveness in. The prevailing arrangement in the country makes the states unproductive as they depend on the federal government for handouts from the oil money. Resource control would encourage non-oil producing states to generate new revenue generating capacity in agriculture, tourism, information technology and solid minerals. Oil presently accounts for 80 percent of Nigeria's gross national product(GNP). The omission of residency provision by states to settlers and residency by birth in the constitution has produced states and communities with ethnic rather than national identity. The people suffer, middle class in Nigeria has been completely eroded. The nation seems ‘oiled to poverty’. In the midst of natural resource abundance Nigeria remains a low income nation with a per capita income of $390.00. From better to worse, Nigeria’s per capita income is below the 1960 level, the year she attained independence and below the average for sub-Saharan Africa according to World Bank records. Things got worst over the years. Upon independence up to the mid-1980s Nigeria ranked a middle-income nation. Some may argue the partition of Africa and/or amalgamation of Nigeria gave birth to an artificial country named Nigeria that was bound to fail. Nigerian leaders are to be blamed with the regression of the country since they failed to work on the composition or restructure of the country after independence. Your roommates can be imposed by a superior power, but you do not have to live with each other or abide by the rules after such power is gone. Options that were available upon independence and are still available to Nigeria are to either break-up into several nations according to culture, number and tribe or remain one under a chosen structure best for the relationship amongst the different groups. The best means of weighing such options before military interruption of the first republic was at the house of parliament, but now it is best done through Sovereign National Conference. This is due to allegations of election rigging as rampant as they are now, the National Assembly might not reflect the peoples’ choices. Sovereign National Conference would include natural and acceptable leaders of each group or tribe, that would push for the best interest of their people within the confines of the polity.

Nigerian leaders have failed to accept the fact that Nigeria is a nation of nations. This is obvious from the political, sectional, religious and cultural polarity amongst the different constituent groups. People are always talking of presidency from their tribe or section and marginalization by the center. Nigeria is best described a unitary system than Federal, even though it goes by the name “Federal Republic of Nigeria”. True federalism would have saved the country from its present state of instability, economic chaos and uncertainty.

Military incursion into Nigerian politics buried democracy and ushered untold hardship, poverty and uncertainty in the country. The bulk of Nigerian wealth is in the hands of retired generals and their associates who use it to manipulate the system. Sovereign National Conference remains the only way out of the woods for Nigeria. The people have long suffered and waited.

Over one million civilian lives were lost through starvation during the Nigerian civil war. People suffered in the East. Nigerian troops were used to bombard and raze Odi and surrounding communities of Rivers State in 1999. People suffered in Niger Delta. In 2001 Zaki-Biam in Benue State was razed by the Nigerian Army, many lost their lives. People suffered in the Middle-Belt. In 2000, 250 people were killed in Ajegunle, Lagos from ethnic fighting between the Yoruba and Hausa. In 2002 over 70 lost their lives in Idi-Araba, Lagos in another Yoruba/Hausa clash. The same year hundreds of civilians, many of them women and children lost their lives in Lagos when an army munitions dump exploded. Thousands were traumatized from the incident. People suffered in the West. The North has witnessed several ethnic riots involving many lives and billions of naira worth of property. These ethnic riots are usually dressed up as religious riots by politicians who use them to exert control on the people. Many have lost their lives and hard earned properties from these conflicts. Most of Nigeria’s earnings are salted away to foreign lands and the people suffer and cry but are held down under one Nigeria. There is nothing wrong with one Nigeria provided it is based on equity, fair play and progress, above all, the design and endorsement of the people. A country is owned by the people and any system that does not cater to their well-being and security is undemocratic and a dictatorship. The people design the system through participation in the drafting of the constitution and amend it through their representatives and referendums. Systems that do not involve democratic participation of the masses result to corrupt and inept government that eventually lead to failed state. Lasting nationhood is not achieved by force through the barrel of the gun, but through willing participation of all groups involved. Defunct Yugoslavia Federation and Soviet Union are good examples for Nigeria to learn from, at least they are the most recent balkanization in history. The ball is in the court of Nigerian leaders to be truthful to themselves in salvaging one Nigeria or facing violent balkanization or break-up of the country. When the masses are poor and crying for redemption, a good leadership would listen and try to redraw the rules. There is ample evidence of massive unemployment, inflation, neglect of infrastructure, and corruption in Nigeria. Decades of misrule by past leaders negate any progress by the present administration which itself does not have a clean slate.

Clamp down of militant, ethnic or self-determination groups in a situation such as Nigeria without addressing issues resulting to their emergence is detrimental to the nation. Such tactics would fail in the long run, judging from history. Dialogue is the solution for a nation that has been misruled for her greater life leading to untold hardship of constituent groups that possess the necessary qualities in forming their own states. Expediency and justice call for peaceful dissolution of a state be it marriage or association, or renegotiation in the midst of mistrust, rivalry and hostility. Only the uninformed would wait for a violent break-up and its consequences. Who feels it knows it. I, the author of this article, am a good example of the decay, injustice and ineptitude of Nigeria. I was lucky to be able to leave the shores of Nigeria quite unlike millions of talented and qualified students. Here in Poland, our government does not care for us as the citizens and the future of Nigeria being students who are laboriously studying for gaining knowledge and wisdom which are crucial for development of our nation. In some countries in Africa and Europe, Poland to be precise, education is made a basic right of every individual. But in Nigeria, it is made a privilege that is enjoyed by children of the wealthy, influential men despite her (Nigerian) being richly blessed country.

All in all, The wise question is: Are Nigeria as country and masses that live in it symbols of badness? The answer to the question is capitally NO, but Nigerian leaders have turned deaf ears to several warnings on addressing the ills of the country and the impending break-up of the polity. I love Nigeria; this article is referring to possible breakage of Nigeria if nothing is done because the future of my dear country “Nigeria” is like an “admirably” fragile ball that is fastened by very weak thread. It can fall off and get broken into many pieces if care is taken at the appropriate time. No matter the odd, I still pledge to my beautifully loved country Nigeria.

Benue State
General information about Benue state:

Benue state was created in regime of General Murtala Mohammed on February 3, 1967. The capital of Benue state is Makurdi.

The name Benue comes from the very famous River in Nigeria called the Benue River which is the second largest in the country and the most prominent geographical feature in the state. Benue state is located in the middle belt of the country and occupies 34,059 square kilometers of land. It has a population of around 3.5 million. Benue state is a very rich agricultural region and full of rivers. Some crops grown their include potatoes, cassava, Soya bean, Guinea corn, flax, yams and beniseed. It shares its boundaries with six other states namely: Nassarawa to the north, Taraba to the east, Cross River, Ebonyi and Enugu to the south and Kogi on the west.

Economy:

Benue state is high praised as the nation’s “food basket” because of its rich and diverse agricultural region. The state also accounts for over 70 percent of Nigeria’s Soya beans production. It also possesses on of the largest stretches of river systems in the country with great potential for a viable fishing industry, dry season through irrigation and for an inland water way through irrigation.

In the area of industrialization, the state government is organizing the industrialization of the state by setting up several industries including Taraki Mills Limited, Benue Brewery Limited, Benue Burnt Bricks, Benco Roof Tiles and Ago Millers Limited in which it still retains some holding, which are slowly being privatized.

Benue state is blessed with abundant mineral resources. These include Limestone, Gypsum, Anhydride, Kaolin, natural Gas, Salt, Petroleum Oil, Lead and Zinc, Clay, Coal, Calcite, and Magnetite. From these mineral resources, only limestone at TseKucha near Gboko and Kaolin are being commercially exploited.

Education:

The standard of education in Benue state is very high. The government has provided many Universities to help the Benue state get a higher education. These are the Universities which are in Benue state.

•	Benue State University, Makurdi, •	Colleges of Education at Katsina-Ala and Oju, Akperan, •	Orshi College of Agriculture in Markudi. •	Schools of Nursing and Midwifery in Markudi. •	Federal Government College, Vandeikya, •	University of Agriculture, Markudi, •	Federal Technical School, Otukpo

Local Government Areas:

Benue state is divided into twenty three (23) local government areas which are: Ado, Katsina-Ala, Oju, Agatu, Konshisha, Okpokwu, Apa, Kwande, Oturkpo, Buruku, Logo, Tarka, Gboko, Makurdi, Ukum, Guma, Obi, Ushongo, Gwer-West, Ogbadibo, Vandeikya, Gwer, Ohimini.

Tourism:

Benue state is not only known as a “food basket” but also known for its tourism. The state possesses a rich and diverse cultural heritage which finds expression in colorful cloths, exotic masquerades, sophisticated music and dances. Traditional dances from Benue have won acclaim at national and international cultural festivals. These dances include Ingyough, Ange, Anchanakupa and Swange among the Tiv and Anuwowowo and Obadaru among the Idoma. The Tiv Kwagh-hir theatre provides memorable entertainment in its dramatization of Tiv folklore and social commentary.

CULTURE IN AN ORGANIZATION USING THE HOFSTEDE’S PRINCIPLE
DEFINTION

Culture is a system of publicly and collectively accepted meanings operating for a given group at a give time. This system of term forms a categories and images Interprets a people’s own situation to themselves.

The pattern of basic assumptions that a given group has invented, discovered, or developed in learning to cope with his problems of external adaption or internal integration and that have worked well enough to be considered valued and therefore to be thought to new member as correct way to perceive, think, and feel the relation to these problems.

INTRODUCTION

Organizations operate differently from country to country due to national cultural influences yet these companies also express their own unique organizational styles In way that are recognizable around the World for example Virgin and British Airways each have unique style that distinguish them from other companies and this uniqueness expresses their organizational cultures. Just as you can analyze an organizational culture as a subsystem of much larger cultural contess, you can examine an organizational culture as the context within which subcultures develop. When companies are large like Disney, their cultures can become quite complex frequently spawning subcultures such that of Disneyland, paris whose french influences give this subculture of the  Disney Corporation a style that differs from the organization’s many other subcultures.

SUBCULTURE

Is a subset of an organization’s that identifies themselves as a distinct group within the organization and the routinely take action on the basis of their unique collective understanding it may form around similar interest within an organization and may reflect clear professional gendered, racial, ethnic or occupational identities as well as national or regional cultural influences. Subculture can form on the basis of familiarity that develop when employee interact frequently as they often do when they share territory or equipment, typically the dominant subculture In an organization is put forward by top management and for this reason it is often referred to as the COPORATE CULTURE

CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON ORGANIZATIONS

Hofstadter’s approach is derivative of the idea that organizations are subcultures of a larger cultural system, the study influence of national culture on IBM. At that time of the study IBM operate in seventy countries. Hofstede used the data to constuct measures of work-related values that he then compares cross countires. He found distinctive patterns of national culture differences among IBM’s subcultures that after further analysis, revealed four dimensions of National culture difference operating within IBM’s organizational culture: Power distance, uncertaninty avoidance, individualism vs. Collectivitism, and Masculinity vs. Ferminity

POWER DISTANCE

It refers to the extent to which members of a culture are willing to accept an unequal distribution of Power, wealth and prestige. Hofstede’s data showed that low Power distance characterized countries like Denmark where such inequalities are difficult to accept. For instance the Danish Janet Law (pronounced yenta) proclaims that no individual should have more than, or stand out In any noticeable way from other Danes. There unwillingness to accept an unequal distribution of wealth can be seen in the exceptionally high income tax paid by Danish citizens. Another indicator is that when Danes try to put themselves forward as more prestigious and powerful than other they are quickly remanded of the inherent equality of all.

UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE

It involve the way In which human societies have learned to cope with uncertainty and ambiguity, for instance, technology is often used to defend against uncertainties caused by nature(the use of reinforced building structure In earthquake prone area) while law defends against uncertainties produced by antisocial behavior(law against thieverey,brutality,fraud). Religion on the other hand is a cultural means to help us accept uncertainties that we cannot defend. Hosted argued that different societies have different levels of tolerance for uncertainty and that these difference can be defined as a degree to which members of a culture feel threatened by ambiguity and risk

INDIVIDUALISM VERSUS COLLECTIVISM

Involve the degree to which individuals in a culture are expected to act independently of other member of the Society. In highly individualist culture, individual right are paramount. Hofstede pointed out that In cultures such as the United State individualism is seen as a source of well being; By contrast, In collectivst cultures cohesive groups (extender familie) gives individual their sense of identity and belonging, demanding considerable loyalty In return for the sense of security that such loyality impart.

MASCULINE VERSUS FERMININE 

Refer to the degree of separation between gender roles in a society. In highly masculine culture were men are expected to be more assertive and women more nurturing; the highly masculine cultures tender to place emphasis on work goals having to do with Career advancement and earrings, and their member valued assertiveness, decisiveness and selling oneself.

IN CONCLUSION

It is not only to identify specific, measurable, national culture difference but also it show that organizational culture is a portal through which society influences organizations, the national cultural traits identified by Hofstede can be seen as part of the Web of meaning that provide context for organizational culture.

The Process of Risk Management
Risk management has to do with anticipating and analyzing what types of risks a person may face and how to avoid or deal with them. The risk management process is a simple process consisting of five steps. Although it can be applied to determine personal risk, it is typically used by companies to understand what risks they may face, how to handle them, and how to go about insuring their businesses.

The first step in the risk management process is identifying what risks a business might face. Depending on the size and purpose of the company, the risks may be different. Some risks may pose short or long term threats. Some of the most basic risks involve employee injury, fraud, technology, and market fluctuations.

The next step in the risk management process is to analyze or review which of the risks listed will have the most impact on the company. In addition to prioritizing the risks, the risk manager will need to determine which risk factors the company has control over and which ones it does not. After reviewing each risk, they must be evaluated. To complete this step, a list of company goals and objectives is needed. By specifically evaluating the possible consequence of each risk on the company or business objectives, the company will be better prepared to deal with the outcomes.

The fourth step in the risk management process is creating a treatment plan. Based on each risk and its affect on the company's goals, the risk manager must determine what can be done to treat each risk. Creating a treatment plan will require deciding which risks can be avoided and which ones can only be pointed.

The treatment plan should detail the steps that will be taken to avoid or lessen the impact of each individual risk. The plan should also include how you will deal with risks that are predictable. The company should decide how it will manage risks that have a small impact on the business, and how it will manage ones that may alter the course of the business plan. The final step in the risk management process is ongoing risk monitoring. This is a step that should occur throughout the lifetime of a company, so it is not so much a step but a continuous supervision over the effects of risk. The monitoring should occur at each level of the business so as to provide a complete view of the impact of risk.

A measuring tool that can be used to assess the most beneficial entry mode (export, contractual or investment) for a country or region.
Going through all the literature used in writing this paper, I came to a conclusion that there is no one, single universal best foreign market entry strategy. A firm that intend to go into the international market should consider all possible channel strategies when entering each market. In other words the best strategy will be the strategies that produce optimal results, that is, market competition, perceived risk and established corporate policy with regards to forms of market entry. Yet this developed strategy would not last forever because of the dynamic nature market that is as a result of changes in market condition, taste of consumers and innovation in the industry.

However, once the decision on what strategy to use is made, there should be continuous monitoring in place and periodic review and evaluation and the possibility at least of a change of mode in the future.

A telecommunication company that intends to expand into an international market is faced with the challenge of what mode of entry would be beneficial for the enterprise. This depends on some factors which I have divided into internal and external factors. The firm make an analysis of its internal strength, such as; the company’s objectives assess the needs of the potential market, assess the capability to meet those needs and identify the tools, in terms of technology, finance and regulatory expertise required. If the telecommunication intends to expand in an international market as regards to the external factor, the firm must know if the market is highly competitive (which would require the firm to acquire an already establish company in other to gain access to the public) or low competitive (in other words the firm can start the company from the scratch and develop over time in the market). More would be said about this later.

Expansion depends on an array of target country, market, strategy, factor cost, and exchange rate or for example research and development expenditure can explain foreign direct investment location choices.

It should be noted at this point, that prior to the measuring tools listed above, a firm considers the level of control achieved and commitment required through obtaining or majority equity share in a foreign investment and the established competition. Below are the measuring tools a firm should consider before making a choice of entry mode.

Firm’s efficiency should affect a firm mode of entry, according to Nocke and Yeaple. The idea is that efficiency lowers the costs of Greenfield or contractual investment and more efficient firms are driven to seek out their potentially superior gain. On the other hand, less efficient firms seek access to other market intermediate inputs or expertise. Given that Greenfield investment would be more expensive for them, acquisition might be their only affordable choice. Efficiency at this point or in this paper is measured in terms of value of total sales and revenue over the number of employee.

Market size and relatedness along with macroeconomics stability also affect the choice of entry mode. For example because the Greenfield investment requires more time to achieve results, acquisition seem more attractive in the face of macroeconomics instability or a potentially unresponsive local market, which could cut the firm short. In other words, the greater a foreign market macroeconomics and political stability and it market relatedness, the greater the likelihood of Greenfield investment as an entry mode.

Cultural distances also play a substantial role in the choice of entry mode. Firms entering a culturally distant country through acquisition and joint venture finds it mode difficult to transfer organizational practice, corporate value and skill into another environment (e.g. Fait alliance with Chrysler). On the other hand a Greenfield investment enables firm to recruit employees as necessary and introduce their own organisational cultures from the beginning thereby reducing cost. With everything been equal, the larger the cultural distance between the home and foreign market, the greater the likelihood of entering the market through Greenfield investment.

According to Nocke and Yeaple, the larger the price differential between the home and host country make Greenfield investment more likely compared to acquisition because large differentials are required to offset the cost of starting a new from scratch. This argument is supported by the higher remuneration at middle management bands and above the lower the likelihood of GI.

The industry type is another measuring tool to choose an entry mode. Industry type is defined by its degree of concentration, size and rate of growth, this factor strongly affect the choice of an entry mode. Since these factors determine the market entry barrier cost, highly developed market increases the availability of potential acquisition target and its growth rate determines whether the mode of entry is fast or slow. For example Starbuck (a US company) entered the United Kingdom coffee market by acquiring Seattle Coffee Company, this pervade a way for competitive advantage and to also gain into the European market.

In a fast growing industry, an acquisition allows for almost instantaneous access to the market, while Greenfield investment necessitates a slower start-up, which reduces profit in the early days.

Finally, internalization and transactional cost theory provide the most widely used and traditional theoretical framework to explain forms of entry mode choice. Basically it means that firms decide whether they trade inputs based on a market like exchange arrangement e.g. license or whether they internalized the market through foreign direct investment. The entry mode choice can also be explained in form of organizational learning perspective, in which firms acquire expertise in several areas such as international ventures and technical know-how entirely through operating in this area.

Whether the transactional cost or the organizational learning perspectives, the theories sustains the premise that everything else being equal, the greater the firms expertise in one entry mode, the greater the likelihood of choosing that mode, an example is McDonald and IKEA franchise mode of market entry.

CULTURE IN AN ORGANIZATION USING THE HOFSTEDE’S PRINCIPLE
DEFINITION

Culture is a system of publicly and collectively  accepted  meanings  operating  for a given  group at a give time. This system of term form a categories and images Interprets a people’s own situation to themselves.

The pattern of basic assumptions that a given group has invented, discovered, or developed in learning to cope with his problems of external adaption or internal integration and that have worked well enough to be considerd valued and therfore to be thought to new member as correct way to perceive, think, and feel the relation to these problems.

INTRODUCTION

Organizations operate differently from country to country due to national cultural influences yet these companies also express their own unique organizational styles In way that are recognizable around the World for example Virgin and British Airways each have unique style that distinguish them from other companies and this uniqueness expresses their organizatioal cultures. Just as you can analyze an organizational  culture as a subsystem of much larger cultural contess, you can examine an organizational culture as the context within  which subcultures develop. When companies are large like Disney, their cultures can become quite complex frequently spawning subcultures such that of Disneyland, paris whose french influences give this subculture of the  Disney Corporation a style that differs from the organization’s many other subcultures.  SUBCULTURE

Is a subset of an organization’s that identifies themselves as a distinct group within the organization and the routinely take action on the basis of their unique collective understanding it may form around similar interest within an organization and may reflect clear professinoal gendered, racial, ethnic or occupational identities as well as national or regional cultural influences. Subculture can form on the basis of familiarity that develop when employee interact frequently as they often do when they share territtory or equipment,typically the dominant subculture In an organization is put forward by top management and for this reason it is often reffered to as the

COPORATE CULTURE

CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON ORGANIZATIONS

Hofstede’s approach is derivative of the idea that organizations are subcultures of a larger cultural system, the study influence of national culture on IBM. At that time of the study IBM operate In seventy countries. Hofstede used the data to constuct measures of work-related values that he then compares cross countires. He found distinctive patterns of national culture differences among IBM’s subcultures that after further analysis, revealed four dimensions of National culture difference operating  within IBM’s organizatioal culture: Power distance, uncertaninty avoidance, individualism vs. Collectivitism, and Masculinity vs. Ferminity

POWER DISTANCE

It refers to the extent to which a members of a culture are willing to accept an unequal distribution of Power, wealth and prestige. Hofstede’s data showed that low Power  distance characterized countries like Denmark where such inequalities are difficult to accept. For instance the Danish Jante Law (pronounced yenta) proclaims that no individual should have more than, or stand out In any noticeable way from  other Danes. There unwillingness to accept an unequal distribution of wealth can be seen In the execptionally high income tax paid by Danish citizens. Another indicator is that when Danes try to put themselve forward as more presigioeus and powerful than other they are quickly remainded of the inherent equality of all.

UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE

It involve the way In which human societies have learned to cope with uncertainty and ambiguity, for instance, technology is often used to defend against uncertainties caused by nature(the use of reinforced building structure In earthquake prone area) while law defends against uncertainties produced by antisocial behaviour(law against thieverey,brutality,fraud). Religion on the other hand is a cultural means to help us accept uncertainties that we Cannot defend. Hofstede argued that different societies have different levels of tolerance for uncertainty and that these difference can be defined as a degree to which members of a culture feel threatend by ambiguity and risk

INDIVIDUALISM VERSUS COLLECTIVISM

Involve the degree to which individuals In a culture are expected to act independently of other member of the Society. In highly individualist culture, individual right are paramonunt. Hofstede pointed out that In cultures such as the United State individualism is seen as a source of well being; By contrast, In collectivst cultures cohesive groups (extender familie) gives individual their sense of identity and belonging, demanding considerable loyalty In return for the sense of security that such loyality impart.

MASCULINE VERSUS FERMININE

Refer to the degree of seperation between gender roles In a soceity. In highly masculine culture were men are expected to be more assertive and women more nurturing; the highly masculine culutres tender to place emphasis on work golas having to do with Career advancement and earings, and their member valued assertiveness, decisiveness and selling oneself. IN CONCLUSION

It is not only to identify specific, measurable, national culture difference but also it show that organizational culture is a portal through which society influences organizations, the national cultural traits identified by Hofstede can be seen as part of the Web of meaning that provide context for organizational culture.

The most important factors affecting trade between countries: i) today, ii) in ten years, iii) in fifty years.
Specialization, comparative advantage and absolute advantage in the economics world have made trade between nations possible. It is said that no nation can sustain itself without relationship with other countries in terms of trade and other factors.

Trade between countries is referred to as international or external trade; this is exchange of capital, goods, and services across international borders or territories. In most countries, it represents a significant share of gross domestic product (GDP). While international trade has been present throughout much of history, it’s economic, social, and political importance has been on the rise in recent centuries. Industrialization, advanced transportation, globalization, multinational corporations, and outsourcing are all having a major impact on the international trade system

The exchange of goods or services between countries, this has made it possible for Nigeria to demand the technical know-how of the Japanese in exchange for crude oil (called counter trade in international trade).

While international trade is a source of revenue for the world power or developed countries, it is on the other hand decreasing the standard of living of some developing countries. The trade between countries has its merits and demerit, which would not be discussed in this paper. More focus would be directed to the factors affecting trade between countries now, in 10 years and 50 years. One of the major factors affecting trade between countries is the cost in terms of Tariffs and non-tariffs regulation of a country, the cost in time, language, legal system and cultural difference. Much would be said on the other factors later in this paper, for now I like to place emphasises on the Tariffs and non tariff regulation.

Tariffs and non tariffs are imposed on imported goods coming into a country in other to restrict or enhance the importation of foreign goods into the country. An increase in the tariffs and non tariff system is to discourage the importation of goods and the decrease in tariffs system encourages importation (these has been and still a factor affecting trade between countries, which is as a result of change laws). For example Nigerian government imposing high tariffs on the importation of textiles from china, this is done in other to discourage the importation of foreign textile and to increase the use of local textile made in Nigeria. This has affected the trade between the two countries (China and Nigeria).

As long as government seek to encourage the infant firms in the country, thereby discouraging the entry of foreign product, it would be pessimistic to conclude that this would eliminate trade between countries. Let’s go back to history.

Since the end of world war substantial progress has been made in reducing barriers to trade in goods through a succession of multilateral negotiating rounds under GATT (general agreement on tariffs and trade), this gave birth to free trade in EU, ECOWAS and other union.

The integration of countries under a body is for some benefits, namely; economic. This has help remove trade barriers affecting trading countries in this present day. It is should be noted that the countries under the umbrella of the union still encounter some problems referred to as technical barriers (such as regulation on packaging and labelling or conformity assessment procedures). However, attempt has been made by the EU to eliminate trade barriers between the third world countries and the United States. For example the European Union and the United States share the largest bilateral trading partnership worldwide, with 33% of world trade in goods, and 42% of world trade in services. As key global trading partners, the EU is committed to working with the United States to break down barriers on both sides of the Atlantic, and this dialogue has been further progressed in 2007 through the establishment of the Transatlantic Economic Council.

Attempts have also been made by EU to negotiate free trade between the third world countries and Asian market, while EU market would be open to the world. But this negotiation has been for decades without any result, this is evidence that trade barriers can not be totally removed when we talk of international trade in 10 to 50 years.

Another factor affecting trade between country in the present day is the currency issue, but some of these have been solved with the introduction of Euro and ECO aimed at accelerating the process of trade integration by eliminating exchange rate uncertainty, increasing transparency and competition cross market. Dollar is also a recognized currency for international trade. With the integration of other countries and agreement, a currency can be born aimed at international trade. This could still be a problem in the next 10 to 50 years because countries would like to protect there economy, thereby refusing to integrate with other countries. For examples the Great Britain refused to drop the pound for Euro because of the perceived risk involved, which might affect the economy in the long run. More countries refuse to integrate there currency with there various union, which may still pose a currency problem in the next 10 years and beyond.

Attempts to use a form of language to communicate (for example English) would be frowned at, thereby posing a problem of trade between countries now and in 50 years. What would be said of a French man who think his language is perfect or an average American who takes pride in speaking American English? This can also be linked to cultural barriers of trade. Every countries in the world finds it difficult to drop there language for another language.

In this case translator’s services would be required, but Ruthstorm and Matejka argue that when communication necessitates translation, a message becomes vulnerable to distortion by means of various idioms used that are peculiar to that foreign language. For example in the far east there is four different meanings to yes, 36 types of green to the Zulu and over 40 types of snow to the Eskimos. In other word translators sometimes add to the problem instead of solving it.

Language and cultural difference would affect trade between countries in 50 years and beyond because cultural value and language is passed from one generation to the next. Even in countries such as Nigeria and India with cultural diversity, there exist problems of trade internally. This problem can only be solved with every nation accepting a type of language for trade, which I personally think is almost impossible.

Transportation cost and problem is also a factor affecting trade between countries today and in the next 50 years. Thanks to the introduction of technology to trade, this has made it possible to move goods and services from one place to another within days. But has new technology is introduced to trade system the cost also raise in proportion to the technology. The cost of transporting goods by road cannot be compared to that of transporting the goods by sea or air. Transportation problems should also be considered; from plane crash to pipeline burst to accident and so on. This factor would still affect trading in years to come. For example the cost of moving goods to and from the UK could rise sharply under government plans to increase charges for the upkeep of lighthouses. Such an increase could prompt many shipping lines to reduce UK port calls.

Type of government/Political factors is affecting trade between countries. Consider North Korea’s isolation policy means that international trade is highly restricted, hampering a significant potential for economic growth. Government policy as sited above is also one of the determinants of international trade. As long as political leader remain close and adamant with the country trade policy, this would still be considered as a problem in the next 50 years and beyond.

It is also important to note that political conflict between leaders can hamper international trade between the two countries. For example in the mid-1990s the US government had been pressuring Koreans to raise the value of the won, to make Koreans export more expensive and the US import cheap. On top of this was the congress’s omnibus trade bill, which forces Koreans to open its market or face punitive sanction on its export to US. This example with other factors has made Koreans resentful of the US, thereby blocking trade with the nation. In other word type of government and political conflict would affect trade between countries. Climatic Problem of some countries scares away traders from other parts of the world and at the same time affect export produce. For example Tea prices have hit record highs, rising almost 35 per cent in the past 12 months, because of the impact of simultaneous droughts in the main exporting countries.

Tea production in Kenya, the world’s largest exporter, fell to 65.8m kg, down 6.9 per cent on the first quarter of 2008. Resulting in an increase in price making customer reluctant to trade, this would be considered a problem in 50 years and beyond because unpredictability of the climate.

Finally, Affordability remains an issue, especially among struggling economy in the world. A perfect example is the recession that hit US and other parts of the world, this bridge a gap in terms of trade between countries. This would also continue to be a problem in 50 years and beyond because of the unpredictability of the economy.