User talk:Masoud237

Isma'ilism in the Seljuq Empire
The Seljuq empire, political as well as religious in character, left a strong legacy to Islam. As Turkic tribes from Central Asia, Seljuqs converted to Islam and eventually ruled a vast area stretching from east Persia to Anatolia. They also became the first Muslims who engaged in the First Crusade. One of the most important aspects of the Seljuqs’ rulership was their religious fervor and its influence on their treatment of different religious communities who lived in their territories. After the Buyids, Samanids, and local rulers of Tabaristan who either genuinely or pragmatically chose to benefit from the expertise of individuals without focusing on their religious orientation, Seljuqs fervently continued a trend of religious intolerance and exclusivity that had begun to emerge under the Ghaznavids and therefore, the persecution of religious minorities entered a new phase. While there were various religious groups affected in this period, the impact of the Seljuqs in the history of Islam cannot be understood without addressing the significant presence and influence of Isma’ilis who built the strongest religious minority in the Sunni majority societies across the region. When Seljuqs ascended to power in 1037 CE, the power of the ‘Abbasid caliphate had drastically declined and the “bankrupt caliphate” had long ceased to play any considerable role in the political sphere of the Islamic world. As newly converted Sunnis, Seljuq sultans declared their allegiance to the ‘Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad and despite of a few turbulent moments they managed to maintain a stable relationship with the caliphs throughout their history. One of the pivotal moments in this religio-political relationship was when Seljuqs intervened to prevent the end of the ‘Abbasid caliphate by the force of Isma’ilis. In 1050 CE the Buyid general, al-Basāsiri (d.1059) embarked on a revolt against Seljuqs and not only managed to capture Baghdad and to imprison the ‘Abbasid caliph with a significant support from Fatimids, but also drastically transformed the religious public sphere of Baghdad by “having the khutba read in the Fatimid caliph’s name.” While Seljuqs interfered and recaptured Baghdad, their main aim was not just to save the ‘Abbasid caliphate, but was an attempt to prevent the advancement of an Isma’ili caliphate right to the doorsteps of their sultanate. In the tension that led to the seizure of Baghdad by al-Basāsiri and the consequent invasion of Seljuqs, one could observe the confrontation of two rival alliances. On one side, the ‘Abbasid caliph desperately called for the Seljuqs’ support who considered themselves the guardians of the Sunni Islam and the institution of caliphate. On the other side, al-Basāsiri who had inclinations towards the Shi’ites plead for the support of the Fatimid caliphate in Egypt which was the most viable alternative to the ‘Abbasid caliphate throughout the Islamic world. It is important to note that while the regional power of the caliph was supported by Tughril’s (d.1063) troops from the Seljuq’s side, al-Basāsiri’s local revolt in Iraq and Syria significantly benefitted from the influence of the renowned Fatimi da’i al-Mu’ayyad al-Shirāzi (d. 1078). Therefore, it is obvious that the real tension was between the Seljuqs and their Isma’ili rivals. While the above incident demonstrates the influence of Isma’ilis in general and da’is in particular, the influence of Isma’ili da’is was far beyond the revolt of Baghdad. For instance, it was their efforts that eventually made cities like Isfahan, Ray, and Saveh the early sites of Isma’ili activities prior to the formation of the Nizari state in Iran in 1090. Based on historical accounts, one of the earliest public appearances of Isma’ilis took place in the Sunni dominated city of Sāveh (near modern day Tehran) where for the first time, Ismailis did their ‘Id prayer collectively in public. The aforementioned examples reveal the significant role of da’is in the spread of Isma’ili ideas which could potentially undermine Seljuqs’ political authority and religious legitimacy. The hostile attitude of Seljuqs toward Isma’ilis becomes clear when one looks at the official historical accounts from that period. Seljuqs officially defined themselves as guardians of the Sunni Islam, protectors of the caliphate and enemies of Isma’ilis as one of the most threatening bid’as (blameworthy innovations) of their time. The hostile attitudes towards Isma’ilis were not limited to military expeditions and both the Seljuq sultans and the ‘Abbasids caliphs used different mediums to confront the growing threat of Isma’ilism. In 1094, by the official order of the ‘Abbasid caliph Al- Mustazhir (d. 1118) and the support of the Seljuq authorities, one of the most influential scholars of the time; Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (d.1111) embarked on writing a polemic to reject the Isma’ili doctrine and practice. Al-Ghazali’s intention in his Fadā’ih al-Bātiniyya wa Fadā’il al-Mustazhiriyya was to demonstrate the infamies of the bātiniyya doctrine but in the introduction of his work al-Ghazāli reveals the ultimate goal of these attempts when he asks God “not to leave any of their (Isma’ilis) dwellings on the face of the earth.” This example demonstrates that Isma’ilis did not just challenge the political authority of Seljuqs, but also posed serious threats to the doctrinal foundations of the Seljuqs and the ‘Abbasids, something that necessitated the engagement of a leading religious scholar like al-Ghazāli in this doctrinal confrontation. Following the Seljuqs’ occupation of Baghdad, a new era of religious persecution began. The revived alliance between the Abbasid caliphs and Seljuq sultans allowed Seljuqs to take on the task of upholding the status of the Sunni Islam for which they did not abstain from persecuting and murdering dissidents even if they were members of their own royal court. Regarding the Seljuqs’ official position against Isma’ilis some historical sources reveal that those sultans like Sultan Sanjar (d.1157) who were more intolerant against Isma’ilis, were more favorable and were known to have a stronger divine support than those like Sultan Barkyāruq (d.1105) who had a more lenient policy toward them. Another incident in this period that demonstrates the level of anxiety created by the Isma’ilis among Sunni ‘ulema as well as Seljuq rulers was the trial and execution of ‘Ayn al-Qużāt Hamadāni, a well-known scholar from Hamadan in 1131. Hamadāni lived in a period that Alamut had become a stronghold for Isma’ilis’ resistance and had become a chronic threat to the legitimacy and authority of the ‘Abbasids and Seljuqs. Hamadāni lived in a region where Isma’ili and Shi’i influences were prevalent and based on accusations orchestrated by the ‘ulema, ‘Ayn al-Qużāt was inclined towards the doctrine of ta’lim which was a serious accusation at that time and also demonstrates Ismailis’ heavy presence in the Seljuq territories. ‘Ayn al-Qużāt’s imprisonment and trial was part of a larger set of events that involved the persecution and murder of a high ranked Seljuq vizier, ‘Aziz al-Din Mustawfi (d. 1133) who had probably converted to Isma’ilism, and according to some sources was one of ‘Ayn al-Qużāt’s disciples. Regardless of the real motivation behind these two murders, all mentioned incidents and controversies demonstrate the attitude of Seljuqs toward Ismailis and show how they perceived the doctrinal and political threat of this religious community.