User talk:Mohammad Reza Iravani

The Role of Women in Development of Iran

(with special reference to Esfahan city)

By: Mohammad Reza Iravani qqq200000@gmail.com

University of Mysore                                                                                                    Mysore-India

Abstract:

If you study the women` s economic activities and their role in country` s economic expansion, you will find the importance of the participation of this major part of our country` s population in economic activities and the necessity of preparing women` s development and participation grounds in different economic, social, political and cultural areas of Iran. The economic participation of a 9 percent of active women (according to enumeration of 1996); by itself, reflects the lack of women` s economic and social participation in comparison with men in developing society of Iran; and while the women` s economic expansion, that is, suitable using of human power, along with development goals in industrial developed countries is a symbol of development, it seems that women` s occupation out of house in Iran is confronted with some misinterpretations, critiques, misjudgments and misgivings. In addition to effects of some factors like economic depressions, unemployment, unequal job opportunities for men and women in labor market of Iran that has a immediate effect on the level of women` s economic participation, we can add some other cultural and social factors like some certain interpretations of women` s occupational role and negative attitudes toward women` s activities that block the research processes and development of women` s participation in economic activities. In this article, the author, based on some theoretical deliberations and findings of empirical researches, tries to study these blocks. Key word: Employment base, active population, general rate of woman activity, Women participation,, feministic view.

Introduction: The studies on the skill, development and education and an evaluation of men and women` s activities by test, in Brazil, show that male employees` goals are to achieve higher occupational hierarchy and advancing from one situation to a better one. But women, steadily, remain in the low levels of occupational hierarchy. Because man, as opposed to women, gain experience and learn. By skill, education and development, men have a great future ahead of them. The researches in this field show that the prime roles of women, in all societies, are playing as a mother and wife. Paying most attention to this point, thus, other issues like their employments are considered as the less important issue. For girls, the possibility of finding job is affected by different factors like their socialization. At the prime of their life, they find that they are not on equal terms with boys in taking the opportunities and social advantages.

It is no doubt true that material abundance is very vital but at the same time development has other important indicators too. It is, therefore, essential to note that real development is one which results in a change in the social order in such a way that social justice is ensured. Development will, therefore, be conceived as a ‘multidimensional process involving changes in structures, attitudes and institutions as well as the acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of inequality and eradication of absolute poverty’( Todaro; 1982 p 87). Development has been conceived as an integral process of economic growth and social progress. This position represents a collective articulation of the desire of the majority of mankind to humanize the condition of people’s lives through the process of development (Kalbagh, 1991 p 3). Development, therefore, is a process as much as an end product (Krishnaraj, 1988 p 8). Development should bring about a change in the lives of large masses of people and should have wide applicability. In this background an effort is made in the next section to examine the role of women in development. The role of women in development is most clearly related to the goal of comprehensive socio-economic development and is an important issue in the development debate. Any development strategy which neglects the need for enhancing the role of women cannot lead to meaningful socio-economic development. The access of women to development opportunities and the impact of development programmes on women assumes importance as women constitute half of human resources in all societies. In the last two decades issues concerning women have received global attention. A large volume of literature pertaining to women and development has also been generated. However, until recently development specialists did not take a very serious note of the gender dimension in development and hence development theories did not address themselves to women’s roles and responsibilities. It was( Boserup 1989 p32 ) who opened up for the first time a discussion on development and its impact being different on women. She cautioned about the misallocation of resources that often result form non-recognition of roles that women play as key workers in the national economy. In all societies the development models designed were working within the framework of the dominant patriarchal notions. Hence, the notion that development automatically improves all sections proved wrong. Equally fallacious was the view that development programmes leaves the same impact on men and women. Since the objective of development is to improve living conditions for society as a whole, it is no doubt logical to expect that it also means an improved status for women. But in reality this did not happen. This idea has been rightly emphasized by the world conference of the U.N. Decade for women 1980 in its definition of development stated that the improvement of the status of women requires a change in the attitudes and roles of both men and women. Women’s development therefore should not only be viewed as an issue in social development but should also be seen as an essential component in every dimension of development. The existing values and outlook towards women in any given society act as a strong barricade in development efforts. The development planners’ non-acceptance of the immense potential of women in bringing about momentum to the development process has resulted in displacement of women by development exercises. In the name of development and modernization of the economy large sections of women are being deprived or removed from meaningful economic participation. Many women who hitherto had control over the production process have been displaced. This deprivation and neglect of women is obvious in areas of education and health care which are very basic and important indicators of development. Development efforts can become meaningful to women if viewed within a community’s framework. Women’s development must be seen as a part of human development, for the ultimate aim of all development programmes must be to uphold human values and human dignity. In simple and foraging societies human needs were limited and simple and possessions were scanty. In using natural resources the question of gender did not really arise. In societies which were always on the move, survival was the main issue and if at all there was a struggle, it was for survival. As material resources for subsistence were equally available to men and women the question of gender discrimination in the utilization of resources did not really arise. Both men and women controlled some of the resources and services required by other members of the group and hence there was mutual cooperation and inter dependence. The foraging societies had various patterns of economic activity. Some groups were mainly food gatherers and supplemented the food gathered with small animal proteins. In some societies both men and women were food gatherers. Male hunting was minimal as was the case with the Hadza of Tanzania (Woodburn 1968 p 33-34). In societies with simple economies and where specialization did not form the basis for any division of labour, both men and women enjoyed a great deal of freedom. Among the Hadza of Tanzania, men, women and even children above 10 years age were capable of procuring food for sustaining themselves. Only men hunted and the hunt was shared with others only on rare occasions. The Hadza generally manage their food needs by themselves and do not depend on others. There was equal participation by men and women in the management of community life and hence there was no scope for gender based discrimination. The Washo of North America (Downs, 1966 p 104) could be cited as yet another example of a community where men and women worked side by side and took collective responsibility for sustaining their lives. Downs observes that gender was never a factor in determining roles and relationships among the Washo. Washo women could take over the leadership of the band and take decisions concerning the movements of the band and many other important issues. ‘The Washo are an example of a society with a balanced inter-dependence of the sexes for economic and sexual activities, and only a limited difference in opportunities for distribution available to each sex’ (Friedl, 1975 p19). Changes in modes of economic and social life saw a marked change in the position of women vis-à-vis men. When men began to gain control over the modes of production and relegate women to the domestic sphere, the motion of man as the ‘producer’ and woman as the ‘consumer’ gained ground. The establishment in the institution of marriage and family further suppressed women because child care which was hitherto the responsibility of the community was thrust society on women. With domestication of plants and animals a large number of societies came under the fold of agriculture and animal husbandry. The planting of crops as a technique for food acquisition resulted in marked differences as compared with hunter gatherers, not only in work habits but also in social, political and religious organization. (Friedl, 1975 p 46). Among the early agriculturists, land was the major strategic resource. Land here is not just a territory where natural flora and fauna could be exploited, but land is personalized. This more often has given rise to large corporate kin groups. This change in the mode of production had its impact on the egalitarian power structure that hitherto existed in simple societies. Women were transformed from free and equal productive members of society to subordinate and dependent wives and wards. The growth of male owned private property, with the family as the institution that appropriates and perpetuates it, is the cause of this transformation. The absence of private property among the foraging communities made man’s productive work and woman’s household work of equal social significance. ‘All production was of the same kind. That is, production mainly for use’ (Sacks 1975 p 213, 215) Amongst the early agriculturists or horticultural societies, division of labour is not as simple as it was in foraging and hunting – gathering communities. The rights of and control over distribution of goods and services are different among horticultural societies. This difference manifests in the form of domestic and extra-domestic spheres of distribution of goods and services. With the introduction of private property women were further marginalized. Private property changed the relations among men and women, as it changed the political and economic relations in the larger society (Sacks 1975 p 216). A shift from house hold production for use to production for exchange made production exclusive social and also exchange oriented. This left women'’ work as private maintenance for family use thus, shadowing its significance. For Engles the shift in production from a stage where women worked for the community to a stage where they worked for their husbands and families brought about a decline in their position. Women'’ labor was a necessary but socially subordinate part of producing an exchangeable surplus. Thus, women became wards, wives, and daughters instead of adult members of society. (Sacks 1975 p86) questions this view point and feels that '‘ale property ownership is not the only basis for male'’ supremacy. Class societies make a sharp dichotomy between the domestic and public spheres of life. This domestic power is not transit able into social Power or position in the public sphere. Moreover, in class societies the economic and political autonomy of a household is quite restricted. This probably militates against even domestic equality (Sacks 1975 p 229). Thus along with private property not being available to women the existence of class society has further pushed women into the background. (Benston 1969 p205 DallaCosta & James, 1972 p291) Industrialization and mechanization further marginalized women. The introduction of large scale production moved production away from the hut into the factory. The large industries gradually drove the home industries out of business. Women lost their hold on production because the type of products they were making came to be replaced by products which were being made by the factory. With mechanization the work that women had been doing was, by and large taken over by machines and women were either placed in substitute jobs or thrown out of work. But this did not and does not generally happen with men, as, most often they are absorbed in other jobs. Either because of their biological functions or because of lack of access to skill acquisition women easily succumbed to the pressures of a capitalist mode of production (Tong 1989 p 42). In developing societies there is a further drain on women’s lives because gender prejudices operate very strongly in these societies. Even where equal opportunities for economic and social participation are given to women, male value structures are so strongly embedded in developing societies that most women find it difficult to break through these barriers.

Women and Development The role of women in development is most clearly related to the goal of comprehensive socio-economic development and is an important issue in the development debate. Any development strategy which neglects the need for enhancing the role of women cannot lead to meaningful socio economic development. The access of women to development opportunities and the impact of development programmes on women assumes importance as women constitute half of human resources in all societies. In the last two decades issues concerning women have received global attention. A large volume of literature pertaining to women and development has also been generated. However, until recently development specialists did not take a very serious note of the gender dimension in development and hence development theories did not address themselves to women’s roles and responsibilities. It was( Boserup 1989 p138) who opened up for the first time a discussion of development and its impact being different on women. She cautioned about the misallocation of resources that often result from non recognition of roles that women play as key workers in the national economy. In all societies the development models designed were working within the framework of the dominant patriarchal notions. Hence, the notion that development automatically improves all sections proved wrong. Equally fallacious was the view that development programmes leave the same impact on men and women. Since the objective of development is to improve living conditions for society as a whole, it is no doubt logical to expect that it also means an improved status for women. But in reality this did not happen. This idea has been rightly emphasized by the world conference of the U.N. Decade for women 1980 in its definition of development stated that the improvement of the status of women requires a change in the attitudes and roles of both men and women. Women’s development therefore should not only be viewed as an issue in social development but should also be seen as an essential component in every dimension of development. The existing values and outlook towards women in any given society act as a strong barricade in development efforts. The development planners non acceptance of the immense potential of women in bringing about momentum to the development process has resulted in displacement of women by development exercises. In the name of development and modernization of the economy large sections of women are being deprived or removed from meaningful economic participation. Many women who hitherto had control over the production process have been displaced. This deprivation and neglect of women is obvious in areas of education and health care which are very basic and important indicators of development. Development efforts can become meaningful to women if viewed within a community’s framework. Women’s development must be seen as a part of human development, for the ultimate aim of all development programmes must be to uphold human values and human dignity. Any discussion of the level and extent of a society’s development has to address itself to the question of role of women in development. Development issues and policies which neglect the need for enhancing the status of women cannot lead to comprehensive socio-economic development, for, women’s development is an integral component of the overall development process. Development is one of the most widely used concepts in social sciences today. Development generally implies a general pattern of social change, but there cannot be a universal se of criteria to determine what these changes are. The notion of development, therefore, is at best relative. In this initial phases development was equated with economic growth were recognized as having achieved optimum development. Other societies were graded as either developing or underdeveloped. The central problem of development is the difficulty one encounters in framing any adequate and acceptable parameters to identify development. But development literature as well as development experiences have clearly established the fact that development has a much wider connotation than mere economic growth. It is when this realization gained wide acceptance that the focus gradually shifted from the growth dimension to the distribution dimension. It is no doubt true that material abundance is very vital but at the same time development has other important indicators too. It is, therefore, essential to note that real development is one which results in a change in the social order in such a way that social justice is ensured. Development will, therefore, be conceived as a ‘multidimensional process involving changes in structures, attitudes and institutions as well as the acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of inequality and eradication of absolute poverty’ (Todaro; 1982 p 87). Development has been conceived as an integral process of economic growth and social progress. This position represents a collective articulation of the desire of the majority of mankind to humanize the condition of people’s lives through the process of development (Kalbagh, 1991 p 3). Development, therefore, is a process as much as an end product (Krishnaraj, 1988 p 8). Development should bring about a change in the lives of large masses of people and should have wide applicability. In this background an effort is made in the next section to examine the role of women in development. The role of women in development is most clearly related to the goal of comprehensive socio-economic development and is an important issue in the development debate. Any development strategy which neglects the need for enhancing the role of women cannot lead to meaningful socio-economic development. The access of women to development opportunities and the impact of development programmes on women assumes importance as women constitute half of human resources in all societies. In the last two decades issues concerning women have received global attention. A large volume of literature pertaining to women and development has also been generated. However, until recently development specialists did not take a very serious note of the gender dimension in development and hence development theories did not address themselves to women’s roles and responsibilities. It was Boserup (1989 p37) who opened up for the first time a discussion on development and its impact being different on women. She cautioned about the misallocation of resources that often result form non-recognition of roles that women play as key workers in the national economy. In all societies the development models designed were working within the framework of the dominant patriarchal notions. Hence, the notion that development automatically improves all sections proved wrong. Equally fallacious was the view that development programmes leaves the same impact on men and women. Since the objective of development is to improve living conditions for society as a whole, it is no doubt logical to expect that it also means an improved status for women. But in reality this did not happen. This idea has been rightly emphasized by the world conference of the U.N. Decade for women 1980 in its definition of development stated that the improvement of the status of women requires a change in the attitudes and roles of both men and women. Women’s development therefore should not only be viewed as an issue in social development but should also be seen as an essential component in every dimension of development. The existing values and outlook towards women in any given society act as a strong barricade in development efforts. The development planners’ non-acceptance of the immense potential of women in bringing about momentum to the development process has resulted in displacement of women by development exercises. In the name of development and modernization of the economy large sections of women are being deprived or removed from meaningful economic participation. Many women who hitherto had control over the production process have been displaced. This deprivation and neglect of women is obvious in areas of education and health care which are very basic and important indicators of development. Development efforts can become meaningful to women if viewed within a community’s framework. Women’s development must be seen as a part of human development, for the ultimate aim of all development programmes must be to uphold human values and human dignity.

Method of data gathering: A questionnaire has been used to gather data.

Research method: Square method is used in this research.

The society that was studied: All ten areas of Esfahan city are studied in this research.

Statistical population: The married, employed and unemployed women of Esfahan city are the statistical population of this research.

Samples: 450 married, employed and unemployed women of Esfahan city

Sample selection: The samples are selected randomly.

The statistical tools used in this research: The statistical tools like one, two and three-dimensional tables of distribution (X2) and coefficient of correlation (Pt) and also the percentile and some other formulas like median, mean, general level of activity, employment, undertaking, etc. are used in this research.

Research hypotheses: 1.	there is a high correlation between women` s occupation and their quantity of income. 2.	there is a high correlation between women` s occupation and the time of their marrying. 3.	there is a high correlation between women` s occupation and the level of their participation in social-cultural affairs. 4.	there is a high correlation between women` s education and their occupation.

The Problem The official statistics, spread abroad by Statistics Center of Iran, show that according to ups and downs of recent enumeration, the level of Iranian women` s economic participation is much less than this level in developed and even in some developing countries.

Table 1- The Ratio of Economically Active and Inactive Women in Nationwide Enumeration (1956- 1996) Year	The population of 10 & more year old women (1000) 	%The percentage of economically active population	The percentage of economically in active population total	employed	unemployed	total	learning	house keeper	gaining income without having work	other 1956	 6242	2/9	2/9	0	8/90	0/3	5/79	0	8/3 1966	8206	6/12	5/11	1/1	4/78	4/7	3/73	0	6/6 1976	11206	9/12	8/10	1/2	1/87	8/14	8/68	1/2	3/1 1986	16033	2/8	1/6	1/2	1/91	6/16	7/68	8/0	0/5 1996	22379	1/9	9/7	2/1	9/89	6/26	4/58	6/1	3/3 The Statistics Center of Iran- The Statistical Yearbook of Iran (1956-1996)

Table 2- The Percentage of Employed Women in Iran in Comparison with Other Countries Developing Countries	Developed Countries Country	Year	Percentage	Country	Year	Percentage Egypt India Indonesia South Korea Pakistan Tunis Turkey Iran	1984 1981 1985 1987 1980 1984 1980 1988	7/18 9/25 9/35 9/39 7/3 3/21 0/30 0/9	Austria Canada France W. Germany Italy Japan Sweden U. S	1987 1986 1987 1987 1987 1985 1987 1987	1/40 9/42 3/43 5/39 4/36 6/38 7/48 5/45 ILO, yearbook of labor statistics 1988, (Geneva: ILO), p 169

It seems that, generally, Iranian women` s life is mostly affected by men's behavior and attitudes. A man as a father, for instance, controls the level and the kind of his daughter` s education and marriage. And the same man, as a husband, can decide about his wife` s education, social activity and occupation; particularly, laws, in Iran, allow husband to prevent his wife to educate herself or work out of house if it was against family policy. Regarding these situations, we can expect that women` s occupation and development of their economic and social activities are mainly affected and determined by their fathers` and husbands` attitudes and decisions. In this manner, thus, the men` s agreement or disagreement about their daughter or wife` s economic activities, along with some other economical and social factors, plays a very important role in developing or restricting women` s opportunities to enter to the labor market and to gain suitable jobs. The increasing number of female students who study in different levels of higher education. facilitates entering to labor market for women and girls. This is a phenomenon that is experimented practically in recent years in Britain. When Iranian women remove this obstacle, that is, the absence of enough education in order to achieve better jobs and occupational situations, they strike other social and cultural snags like employers` tendency to employ men rather than women and generic discrimination, etc. The level of women participation in economic and productive activities has been decreased since fifteen years ago. In years between 1976- 1991, in spite of increasing the number of active women from 1449 to 1630, the level of women` s participation in economical activities has been fallen from 12/9 to 8/7 that is because of the structural blocks in labor market. This decrease is inconsistent with the high investment that is invested in educating 6 and more year old women that increased their level of knowledge from 35/5 percent to 67/1. The number of women, educating in higher education, has increased from 75000 to 258000 and the number of women educating in secondary school has increased from 306000 to 1703000. These findings show that, at least for women, the conditions necessary to use this investment in human resources is not ideal and we can not expect that increasing sum of money invested in, can lead to increasing women` s participation in economic activities. Another issue on constant development that we must pay attention to, is the people` s cultural attitude toward women` s occupation. The mass media, unfortunately, especially movies and textbooks, do not set a suitable cultural pattern about women` s occupation. Rectification of cultural attitude of society to women` s occupation in producing or doing social services can improve the position of women in their participation. After the Islamic revolution, the officials have paid must attention to women` s education, especially higher education. The statistics show that 60% of those who passed the Entrance Examination of universities in 1380 were women that indicated their social and mental development. Regarding the increasing number of women who pass the Entrance Examination of universities, it is inevitable that we must make a good plan to enjoy their enormous capacity. It seems that, regarding the increasing number of women who pass the Entrance Examination of universities in recent years, on one part, it gives to the society a window of opportunity to discover and use these faculties and on the other part, it may lead us to another imminent job crisis if we don not appropriately prepare the situations. Ignoring the occupations and economic activities of women is to keep half of economically active population away from economic activities and without paying attention to this issue, it is not possible to achieve economic growth and development. This issue needs a lot of studies and researches because of its importance that can be used by economists, programmers and development managers. Without an essential research, we can not achieve a appropriate programming.

Women and the Statistics of Active Population The global statistics of active population of women is ambiguous. The population of 15-54 year old active women are 50% for North America, 43% for Europe, 53% for the Far East, 36% for South Asia, 42% for Africa and 25% for Latin America. In view of the fact that women in the Third World work without any or much payback (homework, handicraft, cooking for her family) these figures are low in these countries. It is maybe because the conception of job refers more to a kind of work for which you receive regular payment and other kinds of work do not be identified as job and thus, in statistics, we just consider the works with payment. The researches show that if we use co-operative observation in our research, instead of questioning men and women, the figures of the statistics will be changed. The victory of Islamic Revolution in Iran changed the circumstances of women noticeably. In basic principles of the Islamic Republic of Iran, except for the 115th article which according to it, a woman can not be the president, both men and women have equal opportunities for education and occupation. The twentieth article says: (all people of the nation are backed up by law equally and enjoy all human, political, economical, social and cultural rights by considering Islamic scales.) Despite all developments and successes that women have achieved in playing their role as a mother and wife in home and also as an active and efficient citizen in society with equal opportunities to men in productive and economical activities, but still there are some discriminations and inequalities of opportunities for women to work out of house. We hope that women by learning more about their role and adopting appropriate strategies can diminish these discriminations and change their potential powers to the actual one and play their role in developing the economy of Islamic republic of Iran. Nowadays, the level of women employment is one basis of development in industrial economy. The factors like wrong cultural manners, unfair social rules and lack of facilities for participation of women in social and economical affairs can lead to women unemployment and supporting family just by men.

Table 3- The Population of 10 and More Year Old Women in Terms of Activity in Different Enumerations of 1000 people Year	the Population of 10 & More Year Old 	Active Population	Rate of unemployment	Inactive Population	Rate of Activity (participation)	Other Total	Employed	Unemployed		Total	Student	House Keeper	Income without Work	Other 1956	6242	576	573	3	-	5666	186	2964	-	516	22/9	7/9 1966	8206	1033	944	90	7/8	72/71	610	6017	-	545	6/12	3/13 1976	11206	1449	1212	237	3/16	9775	1664	7707	240	146	9/12	8/13 1986	16033	1307	975	333	5/25	14725	2659	11011	135	920	2/8	9/8 1996	22379	2037	1765	272	6/26	20124	5955	13073	362	733	1/8	8/8 The Statistics Center of Iran- The Statistical Yearbook of Iran (1956-1996) The table 3 show that despite of an increase in population of 10 year old and more women at about 9/791 million, in years between 1956 to 1986, the active population of women has had an increase from 1956 to 1976 and from then on to 1986 has had a decrease at about 9/8 %. The composition of employed and unemployed 10 and more year old women indicates a decrease at about 9/6 % in period from 55 to 65. In other words, ½ million employed women in 1976 have decreased to 975000 in 1986. It shows that the population of unemployed women has become ¼ times as much. Thus, according to decreasing the number of active population, the increasing rate of women unemployment has reached to 25/5 % in 1986; and regarding the rate of unemployment in country at about 14/2 %, the level of unemployment for women is very high. The increase in the number of inactive women is mostly resulted from the increase in the number of students and house keepers that we must study more about them. On the other part, the level of activity or rate of participation of 10 and more year old women that is the proportion of the active population to the total population and also the proportion of employed women to the total number of employees shows an increase in years before 1355 and a decrease at about 5% from then on to 1986. Thus, according to this statistics, in a period of ten years, from 55 to 65, not only we have not promoted new employment opportunities for women, but also we decreased this level since 1976.

Table 4- The Rate of Women` s Participation in the World in 1988

Description	Number	Rate of Participation Developing Countries Poor Countries South African Countries Developed Countries	ـــ ـــ ـــ ـــ	1/32 2/28 8/37 1/41 World	130	2/34 Low Human Development Low Human Development Except for India Median Human Development Median Human Development Except for China High Human Development	44 43 40 39 46	5/26 6/27 8/36 2/29 8/38 Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Libya, Algeria,   Honduras Syria, Iran, Pakistan, Dominican, Ecuador Bolivia, Ireland, Somalia, Mexico, Argentina Britain, Belgium, Turkey, Korea, Japan Finland, Niger, Sweden, Jamaica 	10 10 30 44 36	10	and less 10-20 20-30 30-40 More than 40 ILO, yearbook of labor statistics 1988, (Geneva: ILO), p 172

The General Rate of Women Participation In years from 1976 to 1986, the population of 10 and more year old women that was around 11/2 million reached 16 million with an increase at about 3/7 % per year; in these two periods the number of active women were 1/3 million (8/2%) and 4/1 million (12/9%) women respectively. The general rate of women participation has had a decrease at about 1% per year and regarding the fixed proportion of job seekers, the rate of decrease in women employment is definitely more. At the same time, the rate of men participation has had an increase at about 3/2% per year on the average. The population of inactive women reached from 9/8 million (87/1 % of 10 and more year old women) to 14/7 million (91/8 % of 10 and more year old women). Because of the small number of unemployed women who have income (0/8% of 10 and more year old women) and large number of women (91% of 10 and more year old women) who have not any economic participation and income, men have a hard work to support their family. The fallowing table shows the general rate and proportion of the participation of 10 and more year old women.

Table 5- The Population of 10 and more year old women in terms of their activity during 10 years Year	The Population of 10 & more year old women	Active Population	Inactive Population Total	Employed	Unemployed	Total	Student	House keeper	Unemployed with income	Other 1956	6242	576	573	3	5666	186	2964	-	516 1966	8206	1033	944	90	72/71	610	6017	-	545 1976	11206	1449	1212	237	9775	1664	7707	240	146 1986	16033	1307	975	333	14725	2659	11011	135	920 1370	18658	1630	1231	398	16813	4102	11879	64	768 1996	22379	2037	1765	272	20124	5955	13073	362	733 The Statistics Center of Iran- The Statistical Yearbook of Iran (1956-1996)

More than 9/7% of the general rate of women participation has been decreased. In 1986, only 987103 women were employed. Regarding the increasing population of the country, the decrease in the number of employed women is very terrible. Those unemployed women, who have poor families, suffer from terrible and unpleasant problems. The increase in population of inactive women (who are mostly students and house keepers) which is due to the limitation of women participation, leads to a hard work for men to support their family; but women as a part of population can play a key role in economical activities and thus supporting the family. Two fallowing tables show the level of active and inactive population of women and also the proportion of their employment to the total active population respectively.

Study of Women Education According to the Enumeration in 1976 and 1986 According to the enumeration in 1986, the proportion of men to women is 105%. Regarding the equal number of men and women, it is expected that both men and women enjoy the same social services and have the same opportunities for economical participation. But the statistics show that men activity is much more than women economical activity. This difference, regarding the kind of their job, is clearly shown in their employment statistics. For example, among 1054000 people who have scientific and specialized jobs, just 243000 of them are women while the number of men reaches to 719000.Also, at the high ranking official and administrative level, while the number of women is 2000, the number of men at these levels is 43000. With a brief glance at conditions of women education, you can clearly understand this issue.

Table 6- The number and proportion of the educated people who are 6 and more year old between 1976 and 1986

Areas	1976	1986 Men & Women	Woman	Men & Women 	Woman Number 	Percent 	Number 	Percent 	Number 	Percent 	Number 	Percent Total Urban Rural 	12877075 8628239 4248836	9/47 5/65 5/30	4679088 3482846 1196242	5/35 6/55 3/17	23913195 15506666 8406529	8/61 1/73 0/48	9835299 6741941 3093358	1/52 4/65 0/36 The Statistics Center of Iran- The Statistical Yearbook of Iran (1956-1996)

Although, in years between 1976 and 1986, the number of educated women increased and from 35/5% educated women in 1976 reached to 52/1% in 1986, but on the one hand, the level of educated men is still in a lower position and on the other hand, in 1986, the number of the rustic women who were educated was at the lowest level (36%). Despite of an increase in the level of education in the mentioned period, the number of educated women in urban areas has been more than rural areas in 1976 that was because of the emigration of villagers to the cities and not because of the lack of equipment for education in villages. On the other part, the increase in the number of educated people has been more in those less than 15 year old ones and the rate of education in adulthood has had a little increase. Considering the effect of higher education for women on decreasing the births, we must prepare the situations for them to continue their learning and be efficient in country` s economic expansion.

The Relation between Level of Education and Occupation Women education and their tendency to work is directly related and based on the educational properties and professional training that men and women receive. Although, duplicity in terms of economical activities can determine the relationship between women` s education and their economic participation, but we must be careful and do a lot of subtle study to be sure of it. Moreover, by preparing educational properties and professional training, we can expect women participation in economical activities will increase and a positive relation between education level and women participation will be established. The more we prepare the education and professional training for women, the more easily they can get jobs with better salary and fringe benefits. Women education, however, have some indirect but positive effects on their economic affairs and employment. It also, increases our expectations and decreases the influences of old customs. It also, prevents women from having many children and encourages them to marry late and postpone their pregnancy. All these transformations facilitate women entrance to labor market. The main issue is that the girls are encouraged to get a job after graduating. The researches in developed countries show that if girls do not enter to labor market after graduating, it is very hard to encourage them to enter to the labor market later.

The Relation between Women Employment and Income

Table 7- The Relationship between the Kind of Job and the Amount of Income

The Amount of Income The Kind of Job 	100000-50000 Toman	150000-100000 Toman	150000 Toman & more 	Total Higher Jobs	0 (71/1)	6 (42/9)	12 (85/6)	18

Government Employees	6 ( 28/ 3)	27 (57/23)	12 (14/17)	45 Total	6	33	24	63 percentage Higher Jobs	0	33/33	66/66	100 Government Employees	33/13	60	66/26	100

(1000 Toman is equal 1 $ USA)

In this sample, 86% of women are unemployed and just 14% of them are employed and 28/57% of those employed women have higher jobs and 71/42% of them are simple employees. The fallowing three main issues is justifiable: 1.	the low level of women employment 2.	the small number of women with higher jobs 3.	the low level of women` s income that is, more than 70% of employed women with a simple governmental job receive less than 150 Dollars per month.

We use X2 for analyzing and explaining the table. The X2 estimated by freedom degree of 2 (df =2) is equal to 9/45 (X2=9/45) that is more than X2 of the table certainly we can say that there is a meaningful relationship between the women employment and their income. The coefficient of correlation too, proves our hypothesis (Pt = 0/11)

Figure 1- A Bar Graph Representing the Relation between the Kind of Job and the Level of Income

Notice that the higher the women education, the more their opportunity to get a job to support their family.

Table 8- The Relation between Husband` s Income and Wife` s Employment Husband` s Income Wife` s Employment	Less than 100000 Toman	100000-150000 Toman	150000-200000 Toman	200000-250000 Toman More than 250000 Toman	Other 	Total

Employed 18 (38/16)	27 (7/14)	6 (8/16)	3 (62/4)	9 (98/7)	- (52/3)	63

Unemployed 	99 (62/100)	78 (4/90)	114 (2/103)	30 (30/28)	48 (02/49)	18 (48/15)	387 Total 	117	105	120	33	57	18	450 percentage Employed 	57/28	85/42	52/9	76/4	28/14	0	100 Unemployed 	58/25	15/20	45/29	75/7	40/12	65/4	100 df = 5          X2 = 22/26

By comparing the level of the income of employed and unemployed women` s husbands, we can conclude that the income of men with employed wives is definitely less than the income of men with unemployed wives. That is, making money to support the family is one the main motivations for women to enter to the labor market and if the man` s income was enough to support the family, the women have not a strong tendency to work out of house. Certainly, there is a relationship between husband` s income and wife` s employment.

Figure 2- A Bar Graph Representing the Relationship between Men` s Monthly Income and Their Wives` Employment

Women Employment and the Number of Their Children Although many factors can effect the number of births in country, but it is inevitable that the most important factor that has a great influence is the level of women` s education and the kind of their employment. If we prepare the essential grounds for women participation in economic activities and encourage them to work out of house, we can help to decrease the births. In other words, developing occupation grounds and training women can prevent from population explosion.

Table 9- The Relationship between Employment and Births (the number of children)

The Number of Children Employment	2-0	5-3	More than 6	Without Child	Total Employed	24 (16/20)	27 (16/20)‌	9 (8/16)	3 (88/5)	63 Unemployed 	120 (84/123)	117 (84/123)	111 (2/103)	39 (12/26)	387 Total 	144	144	120	42	450 percentage Employed 	09/38	85/42	28/14	76/4	100 Unemployed 	31	23/30	68/28	07/10	100 df = 3   X2 = 14/08

As you can see, 38/09% of employed women have 0-2, 42/85% of them 3-5, 14/28% of them more than 6 children and 4/76% of them have not any child. Thus, we can surely say that there is a meaningful relationship between employment and the number of children that proves our hypothesis.

Women Employment and the Age of Marriage

Table 10- The Relationship between Employment and Age of Marriage

Age of Marriage Employment 	14 – 10	19- 15	24- 20	29- 25	34 – 30	Total

Employed 	0 (24/9)	6 (4/29)	45 (64/17)	9 ( 78/3)‌	3 (‌94/2)	63 Unemployed 	66 (76/56)	204 (6/180)	81 (36/108)	18 (22/23)	18 (06/18)	387 Total 	66	210	126	27	21	450 Employed 	0	52/9	42/71	28/14	67/7	100 Unemployed 	05/17	71/52	93/20	65/4	65/4	100 df = 4          X2 = 90/09

The above table shows that 9/52% of employed women from 15-19, 71/42% of them from 20-24, 14/28% of them from 25-29 and 7/67% of them from 30-34 years of age have gotten married. And also, 17/05% of unemployed women from 10-14, 52/71% of them from 15-19, 20/93% of them from 20-24, 4/65% of them from 25-30 and 4/65% of them from 30-34 years of age have gotten married. As you can see, there is no marriage among those employed women under the age of 14 but 17% of unemployed women got married under 14 year old. The employed women mostly have gotten married in ages between 20 and 24 year old (71/42%) but unemployed women mostly have gotten married in ages between 15 and 19 year old (52/71%). Certainly, we can say that there is meaningful relationship between women employment and their age of marriage. Pt is equal to 10%, X2 is equal to 90/09 and X2 of the table is equal to 18/5.

The Relationship between Education and Employment

The women` s tendency to educate and work out of house id directly based on the educational properties and professional training that they receive. Although, duplicity in terms of economic activity, determines the correlation between women education and their economic participation, but we must be careful and do a lot of subtle study to be sure of it. Moreover, by preparing educational properties and professional training, we can expect women participation in economical activities will increase and a positive correlation between education level and women participation will be established. The occupation of educated women, often, is not congruent with the reputation and the income that they deserve and the education that they completed. In more cases, the women are forced to get jobs that are simpler than the jobs that men with the same level of education can get. Disregarding the reason, women are startled when they face such situations and sometimes it makes them to leave the labor market and stay at home.

Table 11- The Relationship between Women Employment and Their Level of Education

The Level of Education

Employment Illiterate Elementary 	Secondary school High School	More than high school

BA

Higher than BA

Total

Employed 	0 (94/2)	0 (6/12)‌	0 (34/11)	24 (26/22)	12 (08/3)‌	18 (24/9)	9 (54/1)	63

Unemployed	21 (45/19)	90 (4/77)	81 (66/69)	135 (74/136)	10 (92/78)	48 (76/56)	2 (46/9)‌	387 Total 	21	90	81	159	22	66	11	450 Employed 0	0	0	09/38	04/19	57/28	28/14	100 Unemployed 	42/5	25/32	93/20	88/34	58/2	40/12	51/0	100 df = 6    X2 = 327/3 The estimated X2 is equal to 327/3 that is definitely more than the X2 of the table with Pt equal to 6, so we can conclude that there is meaningful relationship between the level of education and employment. Also, the Pt proves this claim.

Figure 3- A Bar Graph Representing the Relation between the Level of the Education of Women and their Employment

Figure 4- A Bar Graph Representing Employed Women in Terms of the Kind of Block in Their Occupational Advancement

Table 12- The Relationship between Women Employment and Social-Cultural Participation Participation Employment 	Participates 	Do not participates	Total Employed 	39 ( 28/12)	24 ( 72/48)	63 Unemployed 	63 (72/87)‌	324 (28/299)	387 Total 	102	348	450 Employed 	90/61	09/38	100 Unemployed 	27/16	72/83	100

We must estimate the X2 to analyze and explain the table. After comparing the estimated X2 with X2 of the table, we can surely conclude that there is a meaningful relationship between women employment and their social-cultural participation.

Conclusion First, women mention many factors as the blocks to progress in their employment that contrary to public opinion is not richness or lack of interest or little education but the main reason is the children existence in family because women are forced to sacrifice and stay at home and take care of their children. Second, for some women, not a single factor, but a combination of some factors prevents them from working out of house. We hope that by adopting suitable strategies, women can progress and develop their opportunities to have economic activity. In order to establish equality of opportunities between men and women, they must give equal salary and fringe benefits. The above social phenomena have a close relationship with each other. We must study them to change women circumstances in labor market. But it will not be an easy work because regarding the predominant social and cultural values most people think that men are superior to women in political, social and economic issues. One of the most important motivations that make women to work out of house is making money to support their family and if the men` s in come was enough to support their family, women have not a strong tendency to work. Also, there is an immediate relationship between women education and their employment, their age of marriage and their social and cultural participation.

Suggestions: The research findings suggest the fallowing tips: •	The Ministry of Labor in collaboration with other ministries should impose a ban on any sexual discrimination and give women an equal opportunity to get jobs congruent with their education. •	The ministries and Social Security Organization should decrease the time that women work, so that women deal with other works related to their family. •	The employed women with higher education, the employed women with more experience and married women believe that discrimination, education factors and economic issues are very influential in occurring occupational problems and the administrators must pay attention to these issues. •	The governments must pay more attention to the women activities in their home and provide them social insurance and encourage them to have a job of their own and see their homework as a job. •	The women must determine the kind and direction of development programs by accessing to better health, gaining more income, learning new skills and technologies, and having equal rights with men and having control over their own body. •	Establishment of consulting centers for women and training them in dealing with their social and familial problems. •	Approval of supportive rules to create suitable employment circumstances.

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