User talk:NAGADITYA

Energia Times
Abstract The transformation of energy from forms provided by nature to forms that can be used by humans. Over the centuries a wide array of devices and systems has been developed for this purpose. Some of these energy converters are quite simple. The early windmills, for example, transformed the kinetic energy of wind into mechanical energy for pumping water and grinding grain. Other energy-conversion systems are decidedly more complex, particularly those that take raw energy from fossil fuels and nuclear fuels to generate electrical power. Systems of this kind require multiple steps or processes in which energy undergoes a whole series of transformations through various intermediate forms. Many of the energy converters widely used today involve the transformation of thermal energy into electrical energy. The efficiency of such systems is, however, subject to fundamental limitations, as dictated by the laws of thermodynamics and other scientific principles. In recent years, considerable attention has been devoted to certain direct energy-conversion devices, notably solar cells and fuel cells, which bypass the intermediate step of conversion to heat energy in electrical power generation. This paper traces the development of energy-conversion technology, highlighting not only conventional systems but also alternative and experimental converters with considerable potential. It delineates their distinctive features, basic principles of operation, major types, and key application.& also highlight latest development in the field of energy conversion system and it comparison with other energy conversion systems in the world. Fundamentals of energy conversion General considerations Energy is usually and most simply defined as the equivalent of or capacity for doing work. The word itself is derived from the Greek energeia: en, “in”; ergon, “work.” Energy can either be associated with a material body, as in a coiled spring or a moving object, or it can be independent of matter, as light and other electromagnetic radiation traversing a vacuum. The energy in a system may be only partly available for use. The dimensions of energy are those of work, which, in classical mechanics, is defined formally as the product of mass (m) and the square of the ratio of length (l ) to time (t): ml2/t2. This means that the greater the mass or the distance through which it is moved or the less the time taken to move the mass, the greater will be the work done, or the greater the energy expended in the above context..

Development of the concept of energy The term energy was not applied as a measure of the ability to do work until rather late in the development of the science of mechanics. Indeed, the development of classical mechanics may be carried out without recourse to the concept of energy. The idea of energy, however, goes back at least to Galileo in the 17th century. He recognized that, when a weight is lifted with a pulley system, the force applied multiplied by the distance through which that force must be applied (a product called, by definition, the work) remains constant even though either factor may vary. The concept of vis viva, or living force, a quantity directly proportional to the product of the mass and the square of the velocity, was introduced in the 17th century. In the 19th century the term energy was applied to the concept of the vis viva. Isaac Newton's first law of motion recognizes force as being associated with the acceleration of a mass. It is almost inevitable that the integrated effect of the force acting on the mass would then be of interest. Of course, there are two kinds of integral of the effect of the force acting on the mass that can be defined. One is the integral of the force acting along the line of action of the force, or the spatial integral of the force; the other is the integral of the force over the time of its action on the mass, or the temporal integral. Evaluation of the spatial integral leads to a quantity that is now taken to represent the change in kinetic energy of the mass resulting from the action of the force and is just one-half the vis viva. On the other hand, the temporal integration leads to the evaluation of the change in momentum of the mass resulting from the action of the force. For some time there was debate as to which integration led to the proper measure of force, the German philosopher-scientist Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz arguing for the spatial integral as the only true measure, while earlier the French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes had defended the temporal integral. Eventually, in the 18th century, the physicist Jean D'Alembert of France showed the legitimacy of both approaches to measuring the effect of a force acting on a mass and that the controversy was one of nomenclature only. To recapitulate, force is associated with the acceleration of a mass; kinetic energy, or energy resulting from motion, is the result of the spatial integration of a force acting on a mass; momentum is the result of the temporal integration of the force acting on a mass; and energy is a measure of the capacity to do work. It might be added that power is defined as the time rate at which energy is transferred (to a mass as a force acts on it, or through transmission lines from the electrical generator to the consumer). Conservation of energy  was independently recognized by many scientists in the first half of the 19th century. The conservation of energy as kinetic, potential, and elastic energy in a closed system under the assumption of no friction has proved to be a valid and useful tool. Further, upon closer inspection, the friction, which serves as the limitation on classical mechanics, is found to express itself in the generation of heat, whether at the contact surfaces of a block sliding on a plane or in the bulk of a fluid in which a paddle is turning or any of the other expressions of “friction.” Heat was identified as a form of energy by Hermann von Helmholtz of Germany and James Prescott Joule of England during the 1840s. Joule also proved experimentally the relationship between mechanical and heat energy at this time. As more detailed descriptions of the various processes in nature became necessary, the approach was to seek rational theories or models for the processes that allow a quantitative measure of the energy change in the process and then to include it and its attendant energy balance within the system of interest, subject to the overall need for the conservation of energy. This approach has worked for the chemical energy in the molecules of fuel and oxidizer liberated by their burning in an engine to produce heat energy that subsequently is converted to mechanical energy to run a machine; it has also worked for the conversion of nuclear mass into energy in the nuclear fusion and nuclear fission processes.

Energy conservation and transformation The concept of energy conservation A fundamental law that has been observed to hold for all natural phenomena requires the conservation of energy—i.e., that the total energy does not change in all the many changes that occur in nature. The conservation of energy is not a description of any process going on in nature, but rather it is a statement that the quantity called energy remains constant regardless of when it is evaluated or what processes—possibly including transformations of energy from one form into another—go on between successive evaluations. The law of conservation of energy is applied not only to nature as a whole but to closed or isolated systems within nature as well. Thus, if the boundaries of a system can be defined in such a way that no energy is either added to or removed from the system, then energy must be conserved within that system regardless of the details of the processes going on inside the system boundaries. A corollary of this closed-system statement is that whenever the energy of a system as determined in two successive evaluations is not the same, the difference is a measure of the quantity of energy that has been either added to or removed from the system in the time interval elapsing between the two evaluations. Energy can exist in many forms within a system and may be converted from one form to another within the constraint of the conservation law. These different forms include gravitational, kinetic, thermal, elastic, electrical, chemical, radiant, nuclear, and mass energy. It is the universal applicability of the concept of energy, as well as the completeness of the law of its conservation within different forms, that makes it so attractive and useful.

Transformation of energy An ideal system A simple example of a system in which energy is being converted from one form to another is provided in the tossing of a ball with mass m into the air. When the ball is thrown vertically from the ground, its speed and thus its kinetic energy decreases steadily until it comes to rest momentarily at its highest point. It then reverses itself, and its speed and kinetic energy increase steadily as it returns to the ground. The kinetic energy Ekof the ball at the instant it left the ground (point 1) was half the product of the mass and the square of the velocity, or 1/2mv12, and decreased steadily to zero at the highest point (point 2). As the ball rose in the air, it gained gravitational potential energy Ep. Potential in this sense does not mean that the energy is not real but rather that it is stored in some latent form and can be drawn upon to do work. Gravitational potential energy is energy that is stored in a body by virtue of its position in the gravitational field. Gravitational potential energy of a mass m is observed to be given by the product of the mass, the height h attained relative to some reference height, and the acceleration g of a body resulting from the Earth's gravity pulling on it, or mgh. At the instant the ball left the ground at height h1 its potential energy Ep1 is mgh1. At its highest point, its potential energy Ep2 is mgh2. Applying the law of conservation of energy and assuming no friction in the air, these add up to form the following equations:

In this idealized example the kinetic energy of the ball at ground level is converted into work in raising the ball to h2 where its gravitational potential energy has been increased by mg (h2 - h1). As the ball falls back to the ground level h1, this gravitational potential energy is converted back into kinetic energy and its total energy at h1 again is 1/2mv12 + mgh1. In this chain of events the kinetic energy of the ball is unchanged at h1; thus the work done on the ball by the force of gravity acting on it in this cycle of events is zero. This system is said to be a conservative one.

Varying degrees of conversion in real systems Although the total amount of energy in an isolated system remains unchanged, there may be a great difference in the quality of different forms of energy. Many forms of energy, in theory, can be transformed completely into work or into other forms of energy. This is true for mechanical energy and electrical energy. The random motions of constituent parts of a material associated with thermal energy, however, represent energy that is not available completely for conversion into directed energy.The French engineer Sadi Carnot described (in 1824) a theoretical power cycle of maximum efficiency for converting thermal into mechanical energy. He demonstrated that this efficiency is determined by the magnitude of the temperatures at which heat energy is added and waste heat is given off during the cycle. A practical engine operating on the Carnot cycle has never been devised, but the Carnot cycle determines the maximum efficiency of thermal energy conversion into any form of directed energy. The Carnot criterion renders 100 percent efficiency impossible for all heat engines. In effect, it constitutes the basis for what is now the second law of thermodynamics. History of energy-conversion technology Early humans first made controlled use of an external, nonanimal energy source when they discovered how to use fire. Burning dried plant matter (primarily wood) and animal waste, they employed the energy from this biomass for heating and cooking. The generation of mechanical energy to supplant human or animal power came very much later—only about 2,000 years ago—with the development of simple devices to harness the energy of flowing water and of wind.The energy conversion technology follows as…….

Year	Event 6500 B.C	Usage of potter wheels 2 B.C	Discovery of lever mechanism by Archimedes. 27 B.C	Description of horizontal shaft water wheel by Roman Architect& Engineer Vitrulus. 65 B.C	Usage of hydraulic machine(water wheels)in accordance to the Greek geographer Strabo,King Mithradates VI of Pontus in Asia. 1st century A.D	Discovery of vertical shaft water mills & grinding wheels in China, later found reached Europe in end of 3rd century A.D to Europe & to Japan by the year 610. 1st century A.D	Description of wind mills by hero of Alexandria. 664 A.D	Wind mills used for Persian corn grinding. 9th century A.D	Wind mills found in Arabian writings.

1180 A.D	Wind mills found in Arabian writings. 1190 A.D	Wind mills with vertical sail on horizontal shaft first found in France. 1191 A.D	Windmills with vertical sails on horizontal shaft reached Syria under the control of Crusaders. 12th century A.D	Discovery of tidal mills is Western Europe.

13th Century A.D	Windmills geared with stones found  in china

14th Century A.D	Discovery of first tower mill in France and also post mills used for driving water from ground.

15th Century A.D	Invention of hollow post mills using a two-step geared drive for draining pumps.

1592 A.D	First wind driven saw mill built in Netherlands by Cornelis Cornelisz.

1665 A.D	Discovery of gravity principles by Sir Isaac Newton. 1666 -68 A.D	Discovery of universal law of gravitation and invention of reflector telescope by Sir Isaac Newton.

1679 A.D	Discovery of steam power& invention of pressure cooker by Dennis Pepin.

1698 A.D	Discovery of stem engine by Thomas Savery,an English inventor& military engineer,U.K .(0.33% EFFICIENCY) 17TH CENTURY A.D	DISICOVERY OF CONCEPT OF ENERGY & START OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION.

1712 A.D	Thomas Severy with the partner ship of Thomas Newcomen discovered the first piston –operated steam pump (0.5% efficiency)

1740’s A.D	John Smeaton improved Newcomen engine, almost double its efficiency.

1745 A.D	Invention of fan tailed wind mills by Edmund Lee, England.

MID 1700’S A.D	Discovery of reaction water turbines in England and is commonly know as Baker mill.

1759 A.D	First analysis of the performance of waterwheels was published by John Smeaton,U.K.

1765 A.D	Invention of steam engine using condenser by James Watt & Mathew Boulton, U.K.

1769 A.D	Invention of car powered by steam engine by Nicolas Cugnot.

1772 A.D	Invention of spring Sail wind mill by Andrew Meikle,a Scottish mill worker.

1775 A.D	Invention of steam powered ship (steamer)

1776 A.D	Invention of submarine by David Bushnell,U.S.A.

1784 A.D	First steam powered flour mill in England.

1789 A.D	Introduction of roller blinds in the wind mills by Stephen Hooper of England.

1803 A.D	First steam powered railway locomotive by Richard Trevithick, England.

1804 A.D	Invention of voltaic cell by Italian physicist Alexendro Volta.

1809 A.D	Jean-Victor Poncelet designed curved paddles for under shot wheels to water wheels.

1816 A.D	Invention of Striling Engine by Robert Stirling, Scotland.

1820’s A.D	Discovery of solar cells by Charles Fritts.

1821 A.D	Discovery of Seeback’s effect Thomas John Seeback,Germany

1824 A.D	Discovery of Carnot Cycle by Sadi Carnot.

1828 A.D	Introduction of Ventilated buckets in water wheels by William Fairbairn, Scotland.

1831 A.D	Invention of Transformer by Michael Faraday, England.

1832 A.D	Invention of Dynamo by Hypotite Pixxii, France.

1836 A.D	Discovery of electromagnetic induction by Michael Faraday, England.

1837 A.D	Invention of propeller (ship) by Francis Smith, Britain.

1839 A.D	Invention of fuel cell by William Robert Grove ,England

1850’s A.D	Water wheels sub planted to water turbines.

1854 A.D	First wind pump built by David Halladay,U.S.A.

1861 A.D	Invention of electric furnace by William Siamans,Britian

1873 A.D	Invention of electric D.C motor by Zenobe Gramme, Belgium.

1876 A.D	First practical Internal Combustion Engine by Nicolas August Otto, Germany.

1888 A.D	Invention of A.C electric motor by Nikola Tesla,U.S.A.

1888 A.D	Invention of petrol engine by Karl Benz, Germany.

1883	Construction of wind pumps using stainless steel by Stewart Perry,U.S.A

1888 A.D	Invention of motorcycle by G.Daimler of Cannstatt,Germany

1893 A.D	Invention of photo electric cell by Julius eliter,Germany.

1890’S A.D	ESTABLISHMENT OF FIRST MECHANICAL& CIVIL ENGINEERING COLLEGE,ENGLAND

1900-1940’s	DEVELOPMENT IN THE FIEND OF NUCLEAR REASEARCHAND CLASSIFICATIONS.

1904 A.D	First geothermal plant set up in Italy

1903 A.D	First biofuel powered car invented by Henry Ford(ETHANOL)

1895 A.D	Invention of first diesel engine by Rudolf Diesel, Germany

1939 A.D	Einstein sign Leo Szilards letter to president to conduct atomic researchon atom bomb ,U.S.A

1941	Glen Seabarg & Authur Wahl establishes the existence of plutonium –the key of atom bomb

1942 A.D	Robert Oppenheimer initiates discussions on design of fission boms

1945 A.D	FIRST EVER TEST OF NUCLEAR BOMB CONDUCTER IN JAPAN(AUG6& 9 ) 1949 A.D	U.S.S.R TESTS THE NUCLEAR BOMB IN KAZAKHSTHAN

1951 A.D	First nuclear power station set up in Idaho,U.S.A

1952 A.D	EDWARD TELLER of U.SA invented hydrogen bomb using nuclear hydrogen bomb

1957 A.D	International Atomic Energy Agency is setup to promote use of nuclear technology limit weaponisation

1987  A.D	First article on topic COLD NUCLEAR FUSION published in Scientific American in July

1989 A.D	Cold fusion was brought into popular consciousness by the controversy surrounding the Fleischmann-Pons experiment.

1990 A.D	Correction of controversy in cold fusion done by Fleischmann-Pons

1990 A.D	The generation of excess heat has been reported by {cold fusion}, •	Michael McKubre, director of the Energy Research Center at SRI International, •	Giuliano Preparata (ENEA (Italy)) •	Richard A. Oriani (University of Minnesota, in December 1990), •	Robert A. Huggins (at Stanford University in March 1990), •	Y. Arata (Osaka University, Japan), •	T. Mizuno (Hokkaido University, Japan), •	T. Ohmori (Japan)

1991 A.D	Nobel laureate Julian Schwinger resign the American Physical Society ,in protest of its peer review practice of cold fusion;

1992 - 1997 A.D	Japan's Ministry of International Trade and Industry sponsored a "New Hydrogen Energy Program" of $20 million to research cold fusion.

1992 A.D	The Wilson group from General Electric challenged the Fleischmann-Pons 1990 paper in the Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry.The Wilson group asserted that the claims of excess heat had been overstated, but they were unable to "prove that no excess heat" was generated. Wilson concluded that the Fleischmann and Pons cell generated approximately 40% excess heat and amounted to 736 mW, more than ten times larger than the error levels associated with the data. 1995 A.D	Clean Energy Technology, Inc (CETI) demonstrated a 1-kilowatt cold fusion reactor at the Power-Gen '95 Americas power industry trade show in Anaheim, CA. They obtained several patents from the USPTO

2001 A.D	Invention of hydrogen powered car, Germany

2005 A.D	No cold fusion reactor has been commercialized by CETI or the patent holders.