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Caffeine, LSD, Alcohol, Meth, Marijuana, Cocaine, Nicotine, Ecstasy. Effects, History and interaction with the brain and body.

John Browder Introductory Psychology 7/28/2012 Drugs, Their History, Uses, and Effects on the Mind and Body There are many drugs that are used in the treatment of a variety of illnesses, and over half of Americans are taking pharmaceuticals. In this paper I will be describing some of those drugs, what they treat and the effects that they have on the brain and body of the person using them. I will also be describing effects of illegal drugs and over the counter drugs, from caffeine to marijuana and crystal meth, where they came from, what they were used to treat and how they developed into what they are in today’s society. It will surprise you to know that some of them originated from plants and were widely used before their dangerous side effects were known; some of them were even used as medications before modern substitutes were developed as there are in today’s society. THC, once entered into the lungs quickly, spreads to the part of the brain where there are cannabinoid receptors; then THC combines and activates with those receptors. Marijuana interferes with communication between neurons in the brain by attaching to them. The nerves are confused by the introduction of the new drug into the brain and body and start not functioning properly. A marijuana plant has 60 psychoactive compounds known as cannabinoids, it also contains an additional 400 chemicals. The cannabinoid receptors are supposed to be used controlling thought, time and depth, memory and coordinated movement. Another thing THC does is effect the production and release of neurotransmitters. One reason Marijuana users may experience memory loss is because a lot of the THC receptors are in the hippocampus which processes memory. The more THC receptors that attach inside the hippocampus the worse a user’s memory will become. THC also affects the limbic system which causes spontaneous changes in mood because the limbic system partially controls behavior and emotions. Anandamide is a neurotransmitter that activates cannabinoid receptors. There is a group of chemicals that anandamide belongs to called cannabinoids. THC is also a cannabinoid, once THC is in the body it copies the effects of anandamide. The highest concentration of cannabinoid receptors are in the basal ganglia, hippocampus, and cerebellum. This causes loss of short term memory, and loss of coordination. A little known fact about marijuana is that it has hundreds of different chemicals in it and when it is burned hundreds of other chemicals are produced. Some short term side-effects of marijuana are loss of coordination, distorted perception, increased heart rate and paranoia, and anxiety. The initial effects of marijuana wear off within the first few hours although the chemicals that it contains stay in your system for longer than that. The terminal half-life of THC is 20 hours to 10 days depending on the amount of marijuana used. It is still debated over whether marijuana is addictive and no signs of the debate cooling down anytime soon. Some symptoms shown by recent studies are irritability, depression and even anger. There are some known healths problems associated and widely accepted dangers of smoking marijuana and they are bronchitis, emphysema, and bronchial asthma. Long term use has the potential to damage the lungs and reproductive system. (Bonsor, Kevin 1-5) The area of the brain most affected by pharmaceuticals and the majority of drugs is called the nucleus accumbens which is located in the Mid-brain. Mostly known as a chemical that cause’s excitement, dopamine is actually a chemical that tries to stop excitement from occurring. In a roundabout way dopamine does cause excitement in the brain but not in a direct way. Dopamine inhibits an inhibitor that releases a chemical called GABA, so by keeping GABA from being released dopamine excites the nucleus accumbens. The majority of drugs increase dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens. Normally dopamine is released by a neuron going to another neuron creating the excitement effect then recycles back to its original neuron in a process known as reuptake. But Amphetamines and ADHD drugs block reuptake so the neuron is over stimulated then the dopamine is washed out of a person’s system instead of recycling. Ritalin, a related drug is known to fine tune the neurons in the prefrontal cortex of the brain and it does so without causing addiction and over arousal in other parts of the brain. Knowing the positive effects that Ritalin and other amphetamines have on people prescribed them it is surprising to find out that crystal meth is in the same category of drugs as amphetamines. It gives a speedy and dangerous high and is extremely illegal. It is best to first know the origins of such a dangerous drug before getting into the side effects it has on the brain and the body. Ever since there was a need for a pick-me-up humans have always enjoyed stimulants to get things done presumably faster and more efficiently than before, this is true worldwide from ancient China to ancient South America. Even in society today coffee is a popular stimulant for anyone to get a quick pick-me-up after a hard day at work or to get up in the morning, but I will get into caffeine’s effects later on in the paper. The Chinese got their pick-me-up in ancient times from an ephedrine producing shrub that was brewed into a tea known as ma huang. The ephedra plants are found in most parts of the world and have long been used in medical practices prior to pharmaceutical companies coming up with adequate substitutes. They were used to open airways to treat cough congestion and asthma, ephedra was first isolated from the plant in 1887, six years after that methamphetamine was processed from ephedrine and twenty six years after that crystallized methamphetamine was produced from ephedrine using red-phosphorus and iodine, so the development from a plant to a hard drug was a very fast one for this particular drug, and its uses in the day and age that it was conceived could have very well changed the world as we see it today. Maybe that is why it is still popular among 26 million people in the world. After first development in 1919 the concentrated stimulants were introduced to the world in the form of diet pills, anti-depressants and general pick-me-ups. Meth found its first widespread usage in World War II to defend and conquer most of the globe. Meth became popular in Germany in 1938 being sold to the public over-the-counter and distributed to Nazi soldiers by the millions of doses in the form of tablets known as pervitin. In 1940 over one four-month period the German military was fed more than 35 million speed tablets. Over the course of the war the Americans and the British had found a taste for and were consuming large amounts of amphetamines. After the war amphetamines were manufactured and sold to much of the world but by the late 50’s and early 60’s it was hard for modern medicine to ignore the amount of professionals turned into speed-freaks and were hopelessly hooked on the drugs that had such an illustrious past and played such a crucial role in years prior to the increased government control of amphetamines. As far as modern medicine is concerned meth is one of the most dangerous drugs in the world it stimulates the central nervous system and it is nearly clear or white in color. It is snorted smoked and injected by its users; it is extremely addictive and more powerful than any other form of stimulant. Meth floods the brain with dopamine which is a neurotransmitter that plays a role in the feeling of pleasure and pain, emotions and bodily movement, once a user gets the speedy high from meth the feeling cannot be felt again unless the user does the drug again making it very easy for addiction to set in. Over time the brain stops producing dopamine naturally making the user feel depressed and itching for more. (Scheve, Tom 1-3) Before I was explaining the relation of drugs that enter the body and their interaction with dopamine producing cells but now I will explain a whole new class of drugs known as opiates. The first question that arises is what are opiates? They are a family of drugs that are all derived from the opium poppy plant. Opiates affect the body completely differently from cocaine, crystal meth and methamphetamines (Ritalin and adderall). It might surprise you that Ritalin and adderall are in the same category as cocaine and crystal meth but keep in mind that they are in that category just because they affect the brain in the same way, they are not nearly as deadly and they are also not illegal. Opiates including heroin, morphine, oxycontin and codeine are known as agonists while drugs such as cocaine disrupts the normal cycle of neurotransmitters and the release of dopamine, agonists activate receptors that are normally activated by neurotransmitters. By performing an action that is already a naturally occurring process opiates get their name as agonists. In the case of most opiates the receptors activated are known as Mu opioid receptors which are associated with analgesia (suppression of pain) euphoria and sedation. Natural opioids, also known as endogenous opioids are used by the body in times of stress or pain. Opiates indirectly effect the flow of dopamine in the brain by releasing the hold that neurons have on the dopamine, think of the neurons and the effect that dopamine has on them relative to the effect that dopamine has on a person a relaxing effect. Like if I were holding a cup in my hand the dopamine’s effects on me might cause me to drop my cup, me being the neuron and the cup and its contents being dopamine which were released when I dropped the cup. When a user of opiates stops using his or her body does two things; for one it was so used to having an increased amount of opiates it turns down the amount of natural opiates it produces and it turns the pain receptors on high both of these things causing excruciating pain for the user. In Vancouver and Montreal there is a heroine substitution treatment being compared to methadone treatment for heroin addicts being done by the North American Opiate Medication Initiative. The heroine substitution treatment group had a higher retention rate and a lower elicit heroin use than the methadone treatment group, mainly because in the methadone treatment group methadone was titrated slowly into the user causing a high early dropout rate. (Kahan, Meldon, Anita Srivastava, and Brian Conway 1) In a completely different category of drugs we have Prozac, a drug used to treat depression, which works in the brain by stimulating the growth of new neurons. This process is known as neurogenesis, researchers wanted to know exactly what part Prozac plays in this process so a team of scientists engineered the nuclei inside the nerve cells of mice to glow green during neurogenesis. As it turned out Prozac stimulates the division of cells just downstream of the stem cell, in a process known as amplifying neural progenitor cells. In a slightly different category there is Vyvanse and it has entered into the body it changes to another chemical called dextroamphetamine which is a stimulant but does not have the effects of an average stimulant such as caffeine, in fact in proper dosages it actually has a calming effect. At the University of California, Los Angeles a study was done on a group of people with obsessive-compulsive disorder they all were found to have abnormalities in their brains. Half of the group received talk therapy and the other half received drug therapy, when all the patients improved Doctor Schwartz checked their brains and found that all their brains changed in the same ways. (Galves, Albert, and David Walker 1) Just like THC nicotine is derived from a plant but can be made synthetically, it is an alkaloid and is made by a few different types of plants, mainly tobacco plants however it can be produced synthetically (nicotiana tabacum). The tobacco plant comes from the night shade family as well as eggplant, potatoes, red peppers and tomatoes. It is also used for the elimination of insects as an antiherbivore chemical. Nicotine first got its name when an ambassador of Portugal sent tobacco seeds from Brazil to Paris in 1560 claiming it had medicinal uses, for relieving migraines. As it turned out the queen of France at the time, that the snuff was sent to, noted that the tobacco was effective in relieving her migraines. Nicotine is found in tobacco naturally and has been used for centuries by people for the calming effects it has on the body. The brain uses neurotransmitters to send and receive information, and just like most other drugs nicotine has an effect on them. Neurotransmitters are similar to keys that fit into locks known as receptors, once nicotine enters the brain it mimics a neurotransmitter known as acetylcholine so that it can fit into the lock (its receptor) that acetylcholine naturally fits into. Acetylcholine and its receptors are naturally involved in many processes including muscle movement, heart rate, breathing learning and memory. It also causes the release of neurotransmitters and hormones that effect memory, appetite and mood. It has also been recently discovered that nicotine activates parts of the brain involved in feeling pleasure and reward that is why nicotine makes you feel good. To specify on what exactly makes you feel good is because nicotine raises the level of a neurotransmitter known as dopamine. It has also been known that once a person inhales or absorbs nicotine it raises levels of the adrenaline hormone in a person’s system, which increases heart rate, blood pressure and restricts blood flow to the heart muscle. Nicotine also restricts the flow of insulin from the pancreas which leaves a smoker with more sugar in his blood than normal, this also suppresses appetite. The tar in cigarettes increases the risk of lung cancer, emphysema and bronchial disorders. (Meeker-O\u0027Connell, Ann 1-5) This next drug is close to being as potent as nicotine, because it only takes micrograms for a person to feel its effects, LSD is similar to serotonin which is a neurotransmitter that is responsible for muscle control, sexuality, sleep and sensory perception, it seems that LSD changes the way serotonins receptors work either inhibiting transmission or stimulating it. LSD also affects the way a person’s retinas perceive information. As little as .25 micrograms per 2.2 pounds can cause the effects, it is quickly metabolized by the liver once entered into the body and is excreted in the urine. A lot of people wonder where LSD came from. It was first synthesized by a Swiss chemist named Albert Hofmann, who was working on a project that involved ergot, which is a parasitic fungus that grows on rye. Ergot used to be used during pregnancies to bring about or speed up labor but in the 19th century was deemed to be dangerous because too high a dose would cause strong contractions and endanger the baby. In the 1930’s lysergic acid was isolated from an ergot compound by researchers at the Rockefeller institute in New York which was the basis for Hofmann’s work at Sandoz. Hofmann developed compounds that lowered blood pressure and increased brain function in the elderly, but it was Hofmann’s later discovery that led him to finding LSD, he derived the 25th series otherwise known as lysergic acid diethylamide he thought it might stimulate breathing and circulation but it didn’t so he abandoned further study until 5 years later. He felt the potential of LSD-25 hadn’t been fully explored so he synthesized another batch, and later found out that he created the first batch of LSD. (Freeman, Shanna 1-2) Going back to the families of drugs derived from plants we arrive at the question of what is cocaine. Cocaine is derived from the leaves of erythroxylon coca also known as the coca scrub which is a plant that originates from the Andean highlands of South America. Coca cola originally contained 9 milligrams of the drug per glass but it was removed in 1903. Once its medical uses were discovered as a numbing agent it was used as such. Once cocaine enters the brain it quickly interferes with neurotransmitters and blocks them from being re-absorbed by the neutrons that released them, this buildup of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine causes the high feeling that user’s experience. Feelings associated with being high are energy, alertness, elevated mood and a feeling of supremacy. The negative feelings reported to being high on cocaine are irritability, paranoia, restlessness and anxiety. Signs that someone has been using include dilated pupils, high levels of energy and excitement. The effects of cocaine wear off in anywhere between 30 minutes and 2 hours. Cocaine is bad for the heart, it causes increased heart rate and blood pressure while constricting the arteries that supply blood to the heart this can lead to a heart attack. Cocaine constricts blood vessels in the brain which can lead to strokes. Regular cocaine abuse can accelerate long term kidney damage caused by high blood pressure. Typically withdrawal symptoms include depression, anxiety, fatigue, difficulty concentrating and inability to feel pleasure. Physical symptoms include aches, pains, tremors and chills. (Watson, Stephanie 1-6) This next drug is similar to other man made drugs and it is called Ecstasy otherwise known as MDMA and is in a family of drugs known as entactogens. Before it was outlawed in 1985 it was used as a therapeutic tool by psychiatrists, even being outlawed the USA and Israel have studies underway to assess the drug’s potential for treating PTSD (post traumatic stress disorder). MDMA produces a relaxed euphoric state it does not cause hallucinogens. It is important to know that compared to other drugs MDMA produces a heightened sense of empathy toward others unlike almost if not all other drugs, a normal dose is anywhere from 100-125 mg. It releases a chemical in the brain known as serotonin which acts as an immediate sort-term antidepressant. One study that was done to compare depressive symptoms and the immediate effects of ecstasy on subjects with and without a predisposition to depression was done using one group on the drug and one group not on the drug. Current users of the drug were assessed using the Profile of Mood States and Beck Depression Inventory when drug-free and while at social gatherings. 20 subjects voluntarily consuming ecstasy and 20 subjects abstaining from the drug were placed in social gathering situations and the group that abstained from the drug reported greater mood disturbance and depressive symptoms than the group that voluntarily consumed the ecstasy. (Majumder, Irina, Jason M. White, and Rodney J. Irvine, 1) An average of 2 gallons of alcohol was drunk per person in 1997, and research shows 35 percent of adults don’t drink so that’s a higher amount per person. Alcohol effects everyone differently some people become the life of the party and some people become angry or sad. At room temperature alcohol is a clear liquid it evaporates at a lower temperature than water and is less dense, it is flammable and dissolves easily in water. Alcohol can be made by fermentation, chemical modification of fossil fuels and chemical combination of hydrogen with carbon monoxide. Ethyl alcohol is the type of alcohol found in beverages. Normally people don’t drink pure alcohol it could be deadly, beer is 4 to 6 percent alcohol, wine is 7 to 15 percent, champagne is 8 to 14 percent and distilled spirits are 40 to 95 percent. In the United States you have to be 21 to consume alcohol. 20 percent of alcohol is absorbed in the stomach and 80 percent in the small intestine. The rate of absorption depends on the concentration of the alcohol in the drink, whether or not the alcohol was drank with a carbonated drink they speed up absorption. Whether the stomach is empty or full also effects alcohol absorption, food slows alcohol absorption. An enzyme in the liver strips electrons from ethanol to form acetaldehyde is called alcohol dehydrogenase, then another enzyme converts acetaldehyde in the presence of oxygen to acetic acid this enzyme is called aldehyde dehydrogenase which is the main component in vinegar. Alcohol leaves the body in three ways once absorbed in the blood stream, the kidney, lungs and the liver. 5 percent of the alcohol is eliminated in urine by the kidney, 5 percent exhaled by the lungs and the rest is chemically broken down into acetic acid by the liver. Death occurs at or above a BAC of .50 percent. Alcohol first affects the cerebral cortex, then the corpus callosum, then the cerebellum, then the hypothalamus, then the brain stem. (Freudenrich, Ph.D., Craig 1-7) Caffeine is as important to some as brushing teeth is to others in their morning ritual, that morning cup of coffee gets them started and gets them ready for their day. In one form or another over 90 percent of Americans consume caffeine every day being Americas most popular drug over half of American adults consume more than 300 milligrams of caffeine every day. Caffeine is even more important in countries such as Scandinavia where they consume more caffeine per capita than any other country. Caffeine is in chocolate coffee and tea but probably more popularly known to be in energy drinks or in pill form in higher levels. Even though the American Medical Association states that the upper normal level of caffeine to consume on a daily basis is 300 milligrams 20 to 30 percent of Americans consume double that on a daily basis. Currently caffeine is being studied for its potential benefits in treating Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease and possibly even cancer. Caffeine even now that it can be found in pill form originates from a naturally occurring chemical called trimethylxanthine. Caffeine is a drug and shares traits with more notorious illegal drugs such as heroin and cocaine it has been a part of cultures worldwide for centuries. In Europe and Asian countries coffee has been a part of their society since as early as the 1400’s. One of the key things to know about caffeine is the way that it affects the processes in the brain, naturally occurring in the brain there is a chemical known as adenosine and as it is created it binds with adenosine receptors. This causes drowsiness by slowing down nerve cell activity. When caffeine is introduced to the adenosine receptors they bind because caffeine looks like adenosine, but instead of slowing down the cells activity like adenosine does the nerve cell speed up. Another effect caffeine has on the brain is it causes blood vessels to constrict because it is blocking adenosines ability to open them up. (Brain, Marshall, Charles W. Bryant and Matt Cunningham 1-5) There are multiple effects that drugs can have on the brain; the history of these drugs for some goes back to the first intelligent societies, but their long term effects on the brain and body were not known until recently. Some of the drugs that I have talked about are still being studied vigorously by modern medicine. Hopefully the future will be abundant with new discoveries to replace the old.

I know this seems like a lot to read but it is very interesting to know the history of drugs and the ways they interact with a persons mind and body you can look me up on facebook for suggestions or revisions or just to talk about the topic of my article my name is John Calvin Browder. Peace.Love.Prosperity

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