User talk:Sashi06

NASA
NASA From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other uses, see NASA (disambiguation). National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) NASA seal.svg Seal of NASA NASA logo.svg NASA logo Flag of the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration.svg Flag of NASA Agency overview Formed	July 29, 1958; 59 years ago Preceding agency NACA (1915–1958)[1] Jurisdiction	United States government Headquarters	Two Independence Square, Washington, D.C., U.S. 38°52′59″N 77°0′59″WCoordinates: 38°52′59″N 77°0′59″W Motto	For the Benefit of All[2] Employees	17,381+[3] Annual budget	Increase US$19.5 billion[4](2017),[5] also see Budget of NASA Agency executives Robert M. Lightfoot Jr., Acting Administrator[6] Lesa Roe, Acting Deputy Administrator[7] Website	nasa.gov Part of a series of articles on the Space policy of the United States Greater coat of arms of the United States.svg NASA Space policy of the United States Apollo program US manned space programs[show] US space probes[show] Expendable launch vehicles[show] Notable figures[show] Astronauts[show] v t e The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA /ˈnæsə/) is an independent agency of the executive branch of the United States federal government responsible for the civilian space program, as well as aeronautics and aerospace research.[note 1]

President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958[10] with a distinctly civilian (rather than military) orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29, 1958, disestablishing NASA's predecessor, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The new agency became operational on October 1, 1958.[11][12]

Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have been led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station, and later the Space Shuttle. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the Space Launch System and Commercial Crew vehicles. The agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program (LSP) which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches.

NASA science is focused on better understanding Earth through the Earth Observing System,[13] advancing heliophysics through the efforts of the Science Mission Directorate's Heliophysics Research Program,[14] exploring bodies throughout the Solar System with advanced robotic spacecraft missions such as New Horizons,[15] and researching astrophysics topics, such as the Big Bang, through the Great Observatories and associated programs.[16] NASA shares data with various national and international organizations such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite. Since 2011, NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency, achieving little results in return for high development costs.[17][18][19]Creation Main article: Creation of NASA

William H. Pickering, (center) JPL Director, President John F. Kennedy, (right). NASA Administrator James E. Webb (background) discussing the Mariner program, with a model presented. From 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1.[20] In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch an artificial satellite for the International Geophysical Year (1957–58). An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard. After the Soviet launch of the world's first artificial satellite (Sputnik 1) on October 4, 1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. The US Congress, alarmed by the perceived threat to national security and technological leadership (known as the "Sputnik crisis"), urged immediate and swift action; President Dwight D. Eisenhower and his advisers counseled more deliberate measures. On January 12, 1958, NACA organized a "Special Committee on Space Technology", headed by Guyford Stever.[12] On January 14, 1958, NACA Director Hugh Dryden published "A National Research Program for Space Technology" stating:[21]

It is of great urgency and importance to our country both from consideration of our prestige as a nation as well as military necessity that this challenge [Sputnik] be met by an energetic program of research and development for the conquest of space... It is accordingly proposed that the scientific research be the responsibility of a national civilian agency... NACA is capable, by rapid extension and expansion of its effort, of providing leadership in space technology.[21]

While this new federal agency would conduct all non-military space activity, the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) was created in February 1958 to develop space technology for military application.[22]

On July 29, 1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, establishing NASA. When it began operations on October 1, 1958, NASA absorbed the 43-year-old NACA intact; its 8,000 employees, an annual budget of US$100 million, three major research laboratories (Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, Ames Aeronautical Laboratory, and Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory) and two small test facilities.[23] A NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959.[24] Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA. A significant contributor to NASA's entry into the Space Race with the Soviet Union was the technology from the German rocket program led by Wernher von Braun, who was now working for the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA), which in turn incorporated the technology of American scientist Robert Goddard's earlier works.[25] Earlier research efforts within the US Air Force[23] and many of ARPA's early space programs were also transferred to NASA.[26] In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a contractor facility operated by the California Institute of Technology.[23]

Staff and leadership Main article: List of NASA Administrators

Charles Bolden speaks after landing of the last Space Shuttle mission, STS-135 The agency's leader, NASA's administrator, is nominated by the President of the United States subject to approval of the US Senate, and reports to him or her and serves as senior space science advisor. Though space exploration is ostensibly non-partisan, the appointee usually is associated with the President's political party (Democratic or Republican), and a new administrator is usually chosen when the Presidency changes parties. The only exceptions to this have been: James C. Fletcher, appointed by Republican Richard Nixon but stayed through May 1977 into the term of Democrat Jimmy Carter; Daniel Goldin, appointed by Republican George H. W. Bush and stayed through the administration of Democrat Bill Clinton; and Robert M. Lightfoot, Jr., associate administrator under Democrat Barack Obama kept on as acting administrator by Republican Donald Trump.[6] Though the agency is independent, the survival or discontinuation of projects can depend directly on the will of the President.[27]

The first administrator was Dr. T. Keith Glennan appointed by Republican President Dwight D. Eisenhower. During his term he brought together the disparate projects in American space development research.[28]

The third administrator, James E. Webb (1961–1968), appointed by President John F. Kennedy, was a Democrat who first publicly served under President Harry S. Truman. In order to implement the Apollo program to achieve Kennedy's Moon landing goal by the end of the 1960s, Webb directed major management restructuring and facility expansion, establishing the Houston Manned Spacecraft (Johnson) Center and the Florida Launch Operations (Kennedy) Center. Capitalizing on Kennedy's legacy, President Lyndon Johnson kept continuity with the Apollo program by keeping Webb on when he succeeded Kennedy in November 1963. But Webb resigned in October 1968 before Apollo achieved its goal, and Republican President Richard M. Nixon replaced Webb with Republican Thomas O. Paine.

James Fletcher was responsible for early planning of the Space Shuttle program during his first term as administrator under President Nixon. He was appointed for a second term as administrator from May 1986 through April 1989 by President Ronald Reagan to help the agency recover from the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.

Former astronaut Charles Bolden served as NASA's twelfth administrator from July 2009 to January 20, 2017.[29] Administrator Bolden is one of three former astronauts who became NASA administrators, along with Richard H. Truly (served 1989–1992) and Frederick D. Gregory (acting, 2005).

The agency's administration is located at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC and provides overall guidance and direction.[30] Except under exceptional circumstances, NASA civil service employees are required to be citizens of the United States.[31]

NASA Advisory Council In response to the Apollo 1 accident which killed three astronauts in 1967, Congress directed NASA to form an Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel (ASAP) to advise the NASA Administrator on safety issues and hazards in NASA's aerospace programs. In the aftermath of the Shuttle Columbia accident, Congress required that the ASAP submit an annual report to the NASA Administrator and to Congress.[32] By 1971, NASA had also established the Space Program Advisory Council and the Research and Technology Advisory Council to provide the administrator with advisory committee support. In 1977, the latter two were combined to form the NASA Advisory Council (NAC).[33]

Space flight programs

At launch control for the May 28, 1964, Saturn I SA-6 launch. Wernher von Braun is at center. Main article: List of NASA missions NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Unmanned programs launched the first American artificial satellites into Earth orbit for scientific and communications purposes, and sent scientific probes to explore the planets of the solar system, starting with Venus and Mars, and including "grand tours" of the outer planets. Manned programs sent the first Americans into low Earth orbit (LEO), won the Space Race with the Soviet Union by landing twelve men on the Moon from 1969 to 1972 in the Apollo program, developed a semi-reusable LEO Space Shuttle, and developed LEO space station capability by itself and with the cooperation of several other nations including post-Soviet Russia. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter.

Manned programs The experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a one-man space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. Reacting to loss of national prestige and security fears caused by early leads in space exploration by the Soviet Union, in 1961 President John F. Kennedy proposed the ambitious goal "of landing a man on the Moon by the end of [the 1960s], and returning him safely to the Earth." This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, and NASA planned even more ambitious activities leading to a manned mission to Mars. However, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, and a semi-reusable Earth orbital shuttle. In the 1990s, funding was approved for NASA to develop a permanent Earth orbital space station in cooperation with the international community, which now included the former rival, post-Soviet Russia. To date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude, 260,000 feet (80 km).[34]

X-15 rocket plane (1959–68) Main article: North American X-15

X-15 in powered flight The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force and Navy. The design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems.[35] Requests for proposal were issued on December 30, 1954, for the airframe, and February 4, 1955, for the rocket engine. The airframe contract was awarded to North American Aviation in November 1955, and the XLR30 engine contract was awarded to Reaction Motors in 1956, and three planes were built. The X-15 was drop-launched from the wing of one of two NASA Boeing B-52 Stratofortresses, NB52A tail number 52-003, and NB52B, tail number 52-008 (known as the Balls 8). Release took place at an altitude of about 45,000 feet (14 km) and a speed of about 500 miles per hour (805 km/h).

Twelve pilots were selected for the program from the Air Force, Navy, and NACA (later NASA). A total of 199 flights were made between 1959 and 1968, resulting in the official world record for the highest speed ever reached by a manned powered aircraft (current as of 2014), and a maximum speed of Mach 6.72, 4,519 miles per hour (7,273 km/h).[36] The altitude record for X-15 was 354,200 feet (107.96 km).[37] Eight of the pilots were awarded Air Force astronaut wings for flying above 260,000 feet (80 km), and two flights by Joseph A. Walker exceeded 100 kilometers (330,000 ft), qualifying as spaceflight according to the International Aeronautical Federation. The X-15 program employed mechanical techniques used in the later manned spaceflight programs, including reaction control system jets for controlling the orientation of a spacecraft, space suits, and horizon definition for navigation.[37] The reentry and landing data collected were valuable to NASA for designing the Space Shuttle.[35]

Project Mercury (1959–63) Main article: Project Mercury

John Glenn on Friendship 7: first US orbital flight, 1962 Shortly after the Space Race began, an early objective was to get a person into Earth orbit as soon as possible, therefore the simplest spacecraft that could be launched by existing rockets was favored. The US Air Force's Man in Space Soonest program considered many manned spacecraft designs, ranging from rocket planes like the X-15, to small ballistic space capsules.[38] By 1958, the space plane concepts were eliminated in favor of the ballistic capsule.[39]

When NASA was created that same year, the Air Force program was transferred to it and renamed Project Mercury. The first seven astronauts were selected among candidates from the Navy, Air Force and Marine test pilot programs. On May 5, 1961, astronaut Alan Shepard became the first American in space aboard Freedom 7, launched by a Redstone booster on a 15-minute ballistic (suborbital) flight.[40] John Glenn became the first American to be launched into orbit, by an Atlas launch vehicle on February 20, 1962, aboard Friendship 7.[41] Glenn completed three orbits, after which three more orbital flights were made, culminating in L. Gordon Cooper's 22-orbit flight Faith 7, May 15–16, 1963.[42]

The Soviet Union (USSR) competed with its own single-pilot spacecraft, Vostok. They sent the first man in space, by launching cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin into a single Earth orbit aboard Vostok 1 in April 1961, one month before Shepard's flight.[43] In August 1962, they achieved an almost four-day record flight with Andriyan Nikolayev aboard Vostok 3, and also conducted a concurrent Vostok 4 mission carrying Pavel Popovich.

Project Gemini (1961–66) Main article: Project Gemini

Ed White on Gemini 4: first US spacewalk, 1965 Based on studies to grow the Mercury spacecraft capabilities to long-duration flights, developing space rendezvous techniques, and precision Earth landing, Project Gemini was started as a two-man program in 1962 to overcome the Soviets' lead and to support the Apollo manned lunar landing program, adding extravehicular activity (EVA) and rendezvous and docking to its objectives. The first manned Gemini flight, Gemini 3, was flown by Gus Grissom and John Young on March 23, 1965.[44] Nine missions followed in 1965 and 1966, demonstrating an endurance mission of nearly fourteen days, rendezvous, docking, and practical EVA, and gathering medical data on the effects of weightlessness on humans.[45][46]

Under the direction of Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, the USSR competed with Gemini by converting their Vostok spacecraft into a two- or three-man Voskhod. They succeeded in launching two manned flights before Gemini's first flight, achieving a three-cosmonaut flight in 1963 and the first EVA in 1964. After this, the program was canceled, and Gemini caught up while spacecraft designer Sergei Korolev developed the Soyuz spacecraft, their answer to Apollo.

Apollo program (1961–72) Main article: Apollo program

Apollo 11: Buzz Aldrin on the Moon, 1969. The U.S public's perception of the Soviet lead in the space race (by putting the first man into space) motivated President John F. Kennedy to ask the Congress on May 25, 1961, to commit the federal government to a program to land a man on the Moon by the end of the 1960s, which effectively launched the Apollo program.[47]

Apollo was one of the most expensive American scientific programs ever. It cost more than $20 billion in 1960s dollars[48] or an estimated $208 billion in present-day US dollars.[49] (In comparison, the Manhattan Project cost roughly $26.6 billion, accounting for inflation.)[49][50] It used the Saturn rockets as launch vehicles, which were far bigger than the rockets built for previous projects.[51] The spacecraft was also bigger; it had two main parts, the combined command and service module (CSM) and the lunar landing module (LM). The LM was to be left on the Moon and only the command module (CM) containing the three astronauts would eventually return to Earth.

The second manned mission, Apollo 8, brought astronauts for the first time in a flight around the Moon in December 1968.[52] Shortly before, the Soviets had sent an unmanned spacecraft around the Moon.[53] On the next two missions docking maneuvers that were needed for the Moon landing were practiced[54][55] and then finally the Moon landing was made on the Apollo 11 mission in July 1969.[56]

Apollo 17: LRV-003, 1972. The first person to stand on the Moon was Neil Armstrong, who was followed by Buzz Aldrin, while Michael Collins orbited above. Five subsequent Apollo missions also landed astronauts on the Moon, the last in December 1972. Throughout these six Apollo spaceflights, twelve men walked on the Moon. These missions returned a wealth of scientific data and 381.7 kilograms (842 lb) of lunar samples. Topics covered by experiments performed included soil mechanics, meteoroids, seismology, heat flow, lunar ranging, magnetic fields, and solar wind.[57] The Moon landing marked the end of the space race; and as a gesture, Armstrong mentioned mankind when he stepped down on the Moon.[58]

Apollo set major milestones in human spaceflight. It stands alone in sending manned missions beyond low Earth orbit, and landing humans on another celestial body.[59] Apollo 8 was the first manned spacecraft to orbit another celestial body, while Apollo 17 marked the last moonwalk and the last manned mission beyond low Earth orbit to date. The program spurred advances in many areas of technology peripheral to rocketry and manned spaceflight, including avionics, telecommunications, and computers. Apollo sparked interest in many fields of engineering and left many physical facilities and machines developed for the program as landmarks. Many objects and artifacts from the program are on display at various locations throughout the world, notably at the Smithsonian's Air and Space Museums.

Skylab (1965–79) Main article: Skylab

Skylab space station, 1974 Skylab was the United States' first and only independently built space station.[60] Conceived in 1965 as a workshop to be constructed in space from a spent Saturn IB upper stage, the 169,950 lb (77,088 kg) station was constructed on Earth and launched on May 14, 1973, atop the first two stages of a Saturn V, into a 235-nautical-mile (435 km) orbit inclined at 50° to the equator. Damaged during launch by the loss of its thermal protection and one electricity-generating solar panel, it was repaired to functionality by its first crew. It was occupied for a total of 171 days by 3 successive crews in 1973 and 1974.[60] It included a laboratory for studying the effects of microgravity, and a solar observatory.[60] NASA planned to have a Space Shuttle dock with it, and elevate Skylab to a higher safe altitude, but the Shuttle was not ready for flight before Skylab's re-entry on July 11, 1979.[61]

To save cost, NASA used one of the Saturn V rockets originally earmarked for a canceled Apollo mission to launch the Skylab. Apollo spacecraft were used for transporting astronauts to and from the station. Three three-man crews stayed aboard the station for periods of 28, 59, and 84 days. Skylab's habitable volume was 11,290 cubic feet (320 m3), which was 30.7 times bigger than that of the Apollo Command Module.[61]

Apollo–Soyuz Test Project (1972–75) Main article: Apollo–Soyuz Test Project

Soviet and American crews with spacecraft model, 1975. On May 24, 1972, US President Richard M. Nixon and Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin signed an agreement calling for a joint manned space mission, and declaring intent for all future international manned spacecraft to be capable of docking with each other.[62] This authorized the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP), involving the rendezvous and docking in Earth orbit of a surplus Apollo Command/Service Module with a Soyuz spacecraft. The mission took place in July 1975. This was the last US manned space flight until the first orbital flight of the Space Shuttle in April 1981.[63]

The mission included both joint and separate scientific experiments, and provided useful engineering experience for future joint US–Russian space flights, such as the Shuttle–Mir Program[64] and the International Space Station.

Space Shuttle program (1972–2011) Main article: Space Shuttle program

Launch of a Space Shuttle.

Mae Jemison working in Spacelab in 1992. Spacelab was a major NASA collaboration with Europe's space agencies The Space Shuttle became the major focus of NASA in the late 1970s and the 1980s. Planned as a frequently launchable and mostly reusable vehicle, four space shuttle orbiters were built by 1985. The first to launch, Columbia, did so on April 12, 1981,[65] the 20th anniversary of the first known human space flight.[66]

Its major components were a spaceplane orbiter with an external fuel tank and two solid-fuel launch rockets at its side. The external tank, which was bigger than the spacecraft itself, was the only major component that was not reused. The shuttle could orbit in altitudes of 185–643 km (115–400 miles)[67] and carry a maximum payload (to low orbit) of 24,400 kg (54,000 lb).[68] Missions could last from 5 to 17 days and crews could be from 2 to 8 astronauts.[67]

On 20 missions (1983–98) the Space Shuttle carried Spacelab, designed in cooperation with the European Space Agency (ESA). Spacelab was not designed for independent orbital flight, but remained in the Shuttle's cargo bay as the astronauts entered and left it through an airlock.[69] Another famous series of missions were the launch and later successful repair of the Hubble Space Telescope in 1990 and 1993, respectively.[70]

In 1995, Russian-American interaction resumed with the Shuttle–Mir missions (1995–1998). Once more an American vehicle docked with a Russian craft, this time a full-fledged space station. This cooperation has continued with Russia and the United States as two of the biggest partners in the largest space station built: the International Space Station (ISS). The strength of their cooperation on this project was even more evident when NASA began relying on Russian launch vehicles to service the ISS during the two-year grounding of the shuttle fleet following the 2003 Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.

The Shuttle fleet lost two orbiters and 14 astronauts in two disasters: Challenger in 1986, and Columbia in 2003.[71] While the 1986 loss was mitigated by building the Space Shuttle Endeavour from replacement parts, NASA did not build another orbiter to replace the second loss.[71] NASA's Space Shuttle program had 135 missions when the program ended with the successful landing of the Space Shuttle Atlantis at the Kennedy Space Center on July 21, 2011. The program spanned 30 years with over 300 astronauts sent into space.[72]

International Space Station (1993–present) Main article: International Space Station

The International Space Station as seen by the final STS mission The International Space Station (ISS) combines NASA's Space Station Freedom project with the Soviet/Russian Mir-2 station, the European Columbus station, and the Japanese Kibō laboratory module.[73] NASA originally planned in the 1980s to develop Freedom alone, but US budget constraints led to the merger of these projects into a single multi-national program in 1993, managed by NASA, the Russian Federal Space Agency (RKA), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA).[74][75] The station consists of pressurized modules, external trusses, solar arrays and other components, which have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets, and the US Space Shuttles.[73] It is currently being assembled in Low Earth Orbit. The on-orbit assembly began in 1998, the completion of the US Orbital Segment occurred in 2011 and the completion of the Russian Orbital Segment is expected by 2016.[76][77][needs update] The ownership and use of the space station is established in intergovernmental treaties and agreements[78] which divide the station into two areas and allow Russia to retain full ownership of the Russian Orbital Segment (with the exception of Zarya),[79][80] with the US Orbital Segment allocated between the other international partners.[78]

Long duration missions to the ISS are referred to as ISS Expeditions. Expedition crew members typically spend approximately six months on the ISS.[81] The initial expedition crew size was three, temporarily decreased to two following the Columbia disaster. Since May 2009, expedition crew size has been six crew members.[82] Crew size is expected to be increased to seven, the number the ISS was designed for, once the Commercial Crew Program becomes operational.[83] The ISS has been continuously occupied for the past 16 years and 294 days, having exceeded the previous record held by Mir; and has been visited by astronauts and cosmonauts from 15 different nations.[84][85]

The station can be seen from the Earth with the naked eye and, as of 2017, is the largest artificial satellite in Earth orbit with a mass and volume greater than that of any previous space station.[86] The Soyuz spacecraft delivers crew members, stays docked for their half-year-long missions and then returns them home. Several uncrewed cargo spacecraft service the ISS, they are the Russian Progress spacecraft which has done so since 2000, the European Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) since 2008, the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV) since 2009, the American Dragon spacecraft since 2012, and the American Cygnus spacecraft since 2013. The Space Shuttle, before its retirement, was also used for cargo transfer and would often switch out expedition crew members, although it did not have the capability to remain docked for the duration of their stay. Until another US manned spacecraft is ready, crew members will travel to and from the International Space Station exclusively aboard the Soyuz.[87] The highest number of people occupying the ISS has been thirteen; this occurred three times during the late Shuttle ISS assembly missions.[88]

The ISS program is expected to continue until at least 2020, and may be extended beyond 2028.[89]

Commercial Resupply Services (2006–present) Main article: Commercial Resupply Services

The Dragon is seen being berthed to the ISS in May 2012

The Standard variant of Cygnus is seen berthed to the ISS in September 2013 The development of the Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) vehicles began in 2006 with the purpose of creating American commercially operated uncrewed cargo vehicles to service the ISS.[90] The development of these vehicles was under a fixed price milestone-based program, meaning that each company that received a funded award had a list of milestones with a dollar value attached to them that they didn't receive until after they had successful completed the milestone.[91] Private companies were also required to have some "skin in the game" which refers raising an unspecified amount of private investment for their proposal.[92]

On December 23, 2008, NASA awarded Commercial Resupply Services contracts to SpaceX and Orbital Sciences Corporation.[93] SpaceX uses its Falcon 9 rocket and Dragon spacecraft.[94] Orbital Sciences uses its Antares rocket and Cygnus spacecraft. The first Dragon resupply mission occurred in May 2012.[95] The first Cygnus resupply mission occurred in September 2013.[96] The CRS program now provides for all America's ISS cargo needs; with the exception of a few vehicle-specific payloads that are delivered on the European ATV and the Japanese HTV.[97]

Commercial Crew Program (2010–present) Main article: Commercial Crew Development The Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program was initiated in 2010 with the purpose of creating American commercially operated crewed spacecraft capable of delivering at least four crew members to the ISS, staying docked for 180 days and then returning them back to Earth.[98] It is hoped that these vehicles could also transport non-NASA customers to private space stations such those planned by Bigelow Aerospace.[99] Like COTS, CCDev is also a fixed price milestone-based developmental program that requires some private investment.[91]

In 2010, NASA announced the winners of the first phase of the program, a total of $50 million was divided among five American companies to foster research and development into human spaceflight concepts and technologies in the private sector. In 2011, the winners of the second phase of the program were announced, $270 million was divided among four companies.[100] In 2012, the winners of the third phase of the program were announced, NASA provided $1.1 billion divided among three companies to further develop their crew transportation systems.[101] In 2014, the winners of the final round were announced.[102] SpaceX's Dragon V2 (planned to be launched on a Falcon 9 v1.1) received a contract valued up to $2.6 billion and Boeing's CST-100 (to be launched on an Atlas V) received a contract valued up to $4.2 billion.[103] NASA expects these vehicles to begin transporting humans to the ISS in 2017.[103]

Dragon V2

Computer rendering of CST-100 in orbit Beyond Low Earth Orbit program (2010–present)

Artist's rendering of the 70 mt variant of SLS launching Orion For missions beyond low Earth orbit (BLEO), NASA has been directed to develop the Space Launch System (SLS), a Saturn-V class rocket, and the two to six person, beyond low Earth orbit spacecraft, Orion. In February 2010, President Barack Obama's administration proposed eliminating public funds for the Constellation program and shifting greater responsibility of servicing the ISS to private companies.[104] During a speech at the Kennedy Space Center on April 15, 2010, Obama proposed a new heavy-lift vehicle (HLV) to replace the formerly planned Ares V.[105] In his speech, Obama called for a manned mission to an asteroid as soon as 2025, and a manned mission to Mars orbit by the mid-2030s.[105] The NASA Authorization Act of 2010 was passed by Congress and signed into law on October 11, 2010.[106] The act officially canceled the Constellation program.[106]

The Authorization Act required a newly designed HLV be chosen within 90 days of its passing; the launch vehicle was given the name "Space Launch System". The new law also required the construction of a beyond low earth orbit spacecraft.[107] The Orion spacecraft, which was being developed as part of the Constellation program, was chosen to fulfill this role.[108] The Space Launch System is planned to launch both Orion and other necessary hardware for missions beyond low Earth orbit.[109] The SLS is to be upgraded over time with more powerful versions. The initial capability of SLS is required to be able to lift 70 mt into LEO. It is then planned to be upgraded to 105 mt and then eventually to 130 mt.[108][110]

Exploration Flight Test 1 (EFT-1), an unmanned test flight of Orion's crew module, was launched on December 5, 2014, atop a Delta IV Heavy rocket.[110] Exploration Mission-1 (EM-1) is the unmanned initial launch of SLS that would also send Orion on a circumlunar trajectory, which is planned for 2019.[110] The first manned flight of Orion and SLS, Exploration Mission 2 (EM-2) is to launch in 2022; it is a 10- to 14-day mission planned to place a crew of four into Lunar orbit.[110] EM-3 is planned to deliver a crew of 4 to Lunar orbit along with the first module of Deep Space Gateway.

On June 5, 2016, NASA and DARPA announced plans to build a series of new X-planes over the next 10 years.[111] One of the planes will reportedly be a supersonic vehicle that burns low-carbon biofuels and generates quiet sonic booms.[111]

NASA plans to build full scale deep space habitats such at the Nautilus-X and Deep Space Gateway as part of its Next Space Technologies for Exploration Partnerships (NextSTEP) program.[112]

Unmanned programs

Pioneer 3 and 4 launched in 1958 and 1959, respectively

JWST main mirror assembled, November 2016 Main article: Unmanned NASA missions More than 1,000 unmanned missions have been designed to explore the Earth and the solar system.[113] Besides exploration, communication satellites have also been launched by NASA.[114] The missions have been launched directly from Earth or from orbiting space shuttles, which could either deploy the satellite itself, or with a rocket stage to take it farther.

The first US unmanned satellite was Explorer 1, which started as an ABMA/JPL project during the early part of the Space Race. It was launched in January 1958, two months after Sputnik. At the creation of NASA the Explorer project was transferred to this agency and still continues to this day. Its missions have been focusing on the Earth and the Sun, measuring magnetic fields and the solar wind, among other aspects.[115] A more recent Earth mission, not related to the Explorer program, was the Hubble Space Telescope, which as mentioned above was brought into orbit in 1990.[116]

The inner Solar System has been made the goal of at least four unmanned programs. The first was Mariner in the 1960s and '70s, which made multiple visits to Venus and Mars and one to Mercury. Probes launched under the Mariner program were also the first to make a planetary flyby (Mariner 2), to take the first pictures from another planet (Mariner 4), the first planetary orbiter (Mariner 9), and the first to make a gravity assist maneuver (Mariner 10). This is a technique where the satellite takes advantage of the gravity and velocity of planets to reach its destination.[117]

The first successful landing on Mars was made by Viking 1 in 1976. Twenty years later a rover was landed on Mars by Mars Pathfinder.[118]

Outside Mars, Jupiter was first visited by Pioneer 10 in 1973. More than 20 years later Galileo sent a probe into the planet's atmosphere, and became the first spacecraft to orbit the planet.[119] Pioneer 11 became the first spacecraft to visit Saturn in 1979, with Voyager 2 making the first (and so far only) visits to Uranus and Neptune in 1986 and 1989, respectively. The first spacecraft to leave the solar system was Pioneer 10 in 1983. For a time it was the most distant spacecraft, but it has since been surpassed by both Voyager 1 and Voyager 2.[120]

Pioneers 10 and 11 and both Voyager probes carry messages from the Earth to extraterrestrial life.[121][122] Communication can be difficult with deep space travel. For instance, it took about three hours for a radio signal to reach the New Horizons spacecraft when it was more than halfway to Pluto.[123] Contact with Pioneer 10 was lost in 2003. Both Voyager probes continue to operate as they explore the outer boundary between the Solar System and interstellar space.[124]

On November 26, 2011, NASA's Mars Science Laboratory mission was successfully launched for Mars. Curiosity successfully landed on Mars on August 6, 2012, and subsequently began its search for evidence of past or present life on Mars.[125][126][127]

Recent and planned activities NASA's ongoing investigations include in-depth surveys of Mars (Mars 2020 and InSight) and Saturn and studies of the Earth and the Sun. Other active spacecraft missions are Juno for Jupiter, Cassini for Saturn, New Horizons (for Jupiter, Pluto, and beyond), and Dawn for the asteroid belt. NASA continued to support in situ exploration beyond the asteroid belt, including Pioneer and Voyager traverses into the unexplored trans-Pluto region, and Gas Giant orbiters Galileo (1989–2003), Cassini (1997–), and Juno (2011–).

The New Horizons mission to Pluto was launched in 2006 and successfully performed a flyby of Pluto on July 14, 2015. The probe received a gravity assist from Jupiter in February 2007, examining some of Jupiter's inner moons and testing on-board instruments during the flyby. On the horizon of NASA's plans is the MAVEN spacecraft as part of the Mars Scout Program to study the atmosphere of Mars.[128]

Vision mission for an interstellar precursor spacecraft by NASA On December 4, 2006, NASA announced it was planning a permanent moon base.[129] The goal was to start building the moon base by 2020, and by 2024, have a fully functional base that would allow for crew rotations and in-situ resource utilization. However, in 2009, the Augustine Committee found the program to be on an "unsustainable trajectory."[130] In 2010, President Barack Obama halted existing plans, including the Moon base, and directed a generic focus on manned missions to asteroids and Mars, as well as extending support for the International Space Station.[131]

Since 2011, NASA's strategic goals have been[132]

Extend and sustain human activities across the solar system Expand scientific understanding of the Earth and the universe Create innovative new space technologies Advance aeronautics research Enable program and institutional capabilities to conduct NASA's aeronautics and space activities Share NASA with the public, educators, and students to provide opportunities to participate In August 2011, NASA accepted the donation of two space telescopes from the National Reconnaissance Office. Despite being stored unused, the instruments are superior to the Hubble Space Telescope.[133]

In September 2011, NASA announced the start of the Space Launch System program to develop a human-rated heavy lift vehicle. The Space Launch System is intended to launch the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle and other elements towards the Moon, near-Earth asteroids, and one day Mars.[134] The Orion MPCV conducted an unmanned test launch on a Delta IV Heavy rocket in December 2014.[135]

The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is currently scheduled to launch in late 2018.[citation needed]

Curiosity's wheel on Mars, 2012 On August 6, 2012, NASA landed the rover Curiosity on Mars. On August 27, 2012, Curiosity transmitted the first pre-recorded message from the surface of Mars back to Earth, made by Administrator Charlie Bolden:

Hello. This is Charlie Bolden, NASA Administrator, speaking to you via the broadcast capabilities of the Curiosity Rover, which is now on the surface of Mars.

Since the beginning of time, humankind’s curiosity has led us to constantly seek new life...new possibilities just beyond the horizon. I want to congratulate the men and women of our NASA family as well as our commercial and government partners around the world, for taking us a step beyond to Mars. This is an extraordinary achievement. Landing a rover on Mars is not easy – others have tried – only America has fully succeeded. The investment we are making...the knowledge we hope to gain from our observation and analysis of Gale Crater, will tell us much about the possibility of life on Mars as well as the past and future possibilities for our own planet. Curiosity will bring benefits to Earth and inspire a new generation of scientists and explorers, as it prepares the way for a human mission in the not too distant future. Thank you.[136]

Scientific research

Radioisotope within a graphite shell that goes into the generator. Main article: NASA research For technologies funded or otherwise supported by NASA, see NASA spin-off technologies. NASA's Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate conducts aeronautics research.

NASA has made use of technologies such as the Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (MMRTG), which is a type of Radioisotope thermoelectric generator used on space missions.[137] Shortages of this material have curtailed deep space missions since the turn of the millennia.[138] An example of a spacecraft that was not developed because of a shortage of this material was New Horizons 2.[138]

The earth science research program was created and first funded in the 1980s under the administrations of Ronald Reagan and George H.W. Bush.[139][140]

NASA started an annual competition in 2014 named Cubes in Space.[141] It is jointly organized by NASA and the global education company I Doodle Learning, with the objective of teaching school students aged 11—18 to design and build scientific experiments to be launched into space on a NASA rocket or balloon. On June 21, 2017 the world's smallest satellite, Kalam SAT, built by an Indian team, was launched.[citation needed]

Climate study NASA also researches and publishes on climate issues.[142] Its statements concur with the interpretation that the global climate is heating.[143] Bob Walker, who has advised the 45th President of the United States Donald Trump on space issues, has advocated that NASA should focus on space exploration and that its climate study operations should be transferred to other agencies such as NOAA.[144]

Facilities Jet Propulsion Laboratory complex in Pasadena, California Jet Propulsion Laboratory complex in Pasadena, California Vehicle Assembly Building and Launch Control Center at Kennedy Space Center Vehicle Assembly and Launch Control at Kennedy Space Center Main article: NASA facilities NASA's facilities are research, construction and communication centers to help its missions. Some facilities serve more than one application for historic or administrative reasons. NASA also operates a short-line railroad at the Kennedy Space Center and own special aircraft, for instance two Boeing 747 that transport Space Shuttle orbiter.

John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC), is one of the best-known NASA facilities. It has been the launch site for every United States human space flight since 1968. Although such flights are currently on pause, KSC continues to manage and operate unmanned rocket launch facilities for America's civilian space program from three pads at the adjoining Cape Canaveral Air Force Station.

Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Houston is home to the Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center, where all flight control is managed for manned space missions. JSC is the lead NASA center for activities regarding the International Space Station and also houses the NASA Astronaut Corps that selects, trains, and provides astronauts as crew members for US and international space missions.

Another major facility is Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama at which the Saturn 5 rocket and Skylab were developed.[145] The JPL worked together with ABMA, one of the agencies behind Explorer 1, the first American space mission.

FCR 1 in 2009 during the STS-128 mission, JSC in Houston The ten NASA field centers are:

John F. Kennedy Space Center, Florida Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California Armstrong Flight Research Center (formerly Hugh L. Dryden Flight Research Facility), Edwards, California Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland Jet Propulsion Laboratory, near Pasadena, California Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia John H. Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama John C. Stennis Space Center, Bay St. Louis, Mississippi Numerous other facilities are operated by NASA, including the Wallops Flight Facility in Wallops Island, Virginia; the Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans, Louisiana; the White Sands Test Facility in Las Cruces, New Mexico; and Deep Space Network stations in Barstow, California; Madrid, Spain; and Canberra, Australia.

Budget

NASA's budget from 1958 to 2012 as a percentage of federal budget

An artist's conception, from NASA, of an astronaut planting a US flag on Mars. A manned mission to Mars has been discussed as a possible NASA mission since the 1960s. Main article: Budget of NASA NASA's budget has generally been approximately 1% of the federal budget from the early 1970s on, after briefly peaking at approximately 4.41% in 1966 during the Apollo program.[27][146] Public perception of NASA's budget has differed significantly from reality; a 1997 poll indicated that most Americans responded that 20% of the federal budget went to NASA.[147]

The percentage of federal budget that NASA has been allocated has been steadily dropping since the Apollo program and in 2012 it was estimated at 0.48% of the federal budget.[148] In a March 2012 meeting of the United States Senate Science Committee, Neil deGrasse Tyson testified that "Right now, NASA’s annual budget is half a penny on your tax dollar. For twice that—a penny on a dollar—we can transform the country from a sullen, dispirited nation, weary of economic struggle, to one where it has reclaimed its 20th century birthright to dream of tomorrow."[149][150]

For Fiscal Year 2015, NASA received an appropriation of US$18.01 billion from Congress—$549 million more than requested and approximately $350 million more than the 2014 NASA budget passed by Congress.[151]

Environmental impact The exhaust gases produced by rocket propulsion systems, both in Earth's atmosphere and in space, can adversely effect the Earth's environment. Some hypergolic rocket propellants, such as hydrazine, are highly toxic prior to combustion, but decompose into less toxic compounds after burning. Rockets using hydrocarbon fuels, such as kerosene, release carbon dioxide and soot in their exhaust.[152] However, carbon dioxide emissions are insignificant compared to those from other sources; on average, the United States consumed 802,620,000 US gallons (3.0382×109 L) gallons of liquid fuels per day in 2014, while a single Falcon 9 rocket first stage burns around 25,000 US gallons (95,000 L) of kerosene fuel per launch.[153][154] Even if a Falcon 9 were launched every single day, it would only represent 0.006% of liquid fuel consumption (and carbon dioxide emissions) for that day. Additionally, the exhaust from LOx- and LH2- fueled engines, like the SSME, is almost entirely water vapor.[155] NASA addressed environmental concerns with its canceled Constellation program in accordance with the National Environmental Policy Act in 2011.[156] In contrast, ion engines use harmless noble gases like xenon for propulsion.[157][158]

On May 8, 2003, Environmental Protection Agency recognized NASA as the first federal agency to directly use landfill gas to produce energy at one of its facilities—the Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland.[159]

An example of NASA's environmental efforts is the NASA Sustainability Base. Additionally, the Exploration Sciences Building was awarded the LEED Gold rating in 2010.[160]

Observations

Plot of orbits of known Potentially Hazardous Asteroids (size over 460 feet (140 m) and passing within 4.7 million miles (7.6×106 km) of Earth's orbit)

Various nebulae observed from a NASA space telescope

1 Ceres

Pluto Spacecraft

Hardware comparison of Apollo, Gemini and Mercury[note 2]

Cassini-Huygens, planned for disposal in 2017

Hubble Space Telescope, astronomy observatory in Earth orbit since 1990. Also visited by the Space Shuttle

Curiosity rover, roving Mars since 2012 Planned spacecraft

James Webb Space Telescope

Orion spacecraft design as of January 2013

Space Launch System concept art Examples of missions by target Examples of robotic missions Spacecraft	Launch year	Mercury	Venus	Mars	Jupiter	Saturn	Uranus	Neptune	Pluto Mariner 2	1962		Flyby Mariner 4	1964			Flyby Mariner 5	1967		Flyby Mariner 6 and 7	1969			Flyby Mariner 9	1971			Orbiter Pioneer 10	1972				Flyby Pioneer 11	1973				Flyby	Flyby Mariner 10	1973	Flyby	Flyby Viking 1 and Viking 2	1975			Orbiters Landers Voyager 1	1977				Flyby	Flyby Voyager 2	1977				Flyby	Flyby	Flyby	Flyby Galileo	1989		Flyby		Orbiter Magellan	1989		Orbiter Mars Global Surveyor	1996			Orbiter Cassini	1997		Flyby		Flyby	Orbiter Mars Odyssey	2001			Orbiter Spirit and Opportunity	2003			Rovers MESSENGER	2004	Orbiter	Flyby Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter	2005			Orbiter New Horizons	2006				Flyby				Flyby Juno	2011				Orbiter Curiosity (Mars Science Laboratory)	2011			Rover MAVEN	2013			Orbiter Spacecraft	Launch year	Mercury	Venus	Mars	Jupiter	Saturn	Uranus	Neptune	Pluto See also Government of the United States portal Spaceflight portal Astronomy Picture of the Day Department of Defense Manned Space Flight Support Office List of government space agencies List of NASA aircraft List of NASA missions List of United States rockets NASA Advanced Space Transportation Program NASA awards and decorations NASA insignia NASA Research Park NASA TV NASAcast Small Explorer program Space policy of the Barack Obama administration TechPort (NASA) Notes Jump up ^ NASA is an independent agency that is not a part of any executive department but reports directly to the President.[8][9] Jump up ^ From left to right: Launch vehicle of Apollo (Saturn 5), Gemini (Titan 2) and Mercury (Atlas). Left, top-down: Spacecraft of Apollo, Gemini and Mercury. The Saturn IB and Mercury-Redstone launch vehicles are left out.

References Jump up ^ US Centennial of Flight Commission, NACA. centennialofflight.net. Retrieved on November 3, 2011. Jump up ^ Lale Tayla & Figen Bingul (2007). "NASA stands "for the benefit of all."—Interview with NASA's Dr. Süleyman Gokoglu". The Light Millennium. Jump up ^ "Workforce Profile". NASA. January 11, 2011. Retrieved December 17, 2012. Jump up ^ https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy_2017_nasa_agency_fact_sheet.pdf Jump up ^ Dreier, Casey (December 18, 2015). "[Updated] An Extraordinary Budget for NASA in 2016 - Congressional omnibus increases the space agency's budget by $1.3 billion". The Planetary Society. Retrieved February 4, 2016. ^ Jump up to: a b Administrator, NASA Content (January 30, 2017). "Robert M. Lightfoot Jr., Acting Administrator". Jump up ^ Dunbar, Brian (January 8, 2015). "NASA Organization Structure". Jump up ^ "Official US Executive Branch Web Sites - Newspaper and Current Periodical Reading Room (Serial and Government Publications Division, Library of Congress)". loc.gov. Retrieved May 24, 2016. Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions". hq.nasa.gov. Retrieved May 24, 2016. Jump up ^ "Ike in History: Eisenhower Creates NASA". Eisenhower Memorial. 2013. Retrieved November 27, 2013. Jump up ^ "The National Aeronautics and Space Act". NASA. 2005. Retrieved August 29, 2007. ^ Jump up to: a b Bilstein, Roger E. (1996). "From NACA to NASA". NASA SP-4206, Stages to Saturn: A Technological History of the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles. NASA. pp. 32–33. ISBN 978-0-16-004259-1. Retrieved May 6, 2013. Jump up ^ Netting, Ruth (June 30, 2009). "Earth—NASA Science". Archived from the original on July 16, 2009. Retrieved July 15, 2009. Jump up ^ Netting, Ruth (January 8, 2009). "Heliophysics—NASA Science". Archived from the original on July 16, 2009. Retrieved July 15, 2009. Jump up ^ Roston, Michael (August 28, 2015). "NASA’s Next Horizon in Space". New York Times. Retrieved August 28, 2015. Jump up ^ Netting, Ruth (July 13, 2009). "Astrophysics—NASA Science". Archived from the original on July 16, 2009. Retrieved July 15, 2009. Jump up ^ Henry Vanderbilt (September 15, 2011). "Impossibly High NASA Development Costs Are Heart of the Matter". moonandback.com. Retrieved January 26, 2012. Jump up ^ Ferris Valyn (September 15, 2011). "Monster Rocket Will Eat America's Space Program". Space Frontier Foundation. Retrieved September 16, 2011. Jump up ^ "Statement before the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology US House of Representatives Hearing: A Review of the NASA's Space Launch System" (PDF). The Planetary Society. July 12, 2011. Retrieved January 26, 2012. Jump up ^ "The NACA, NASA, and the Supersonic-Hypersonic Frontier" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved September 30, 2011. ^ Jump up to: a b Erickson, Mark. Into the Unknown Together—The DOD, NASA, and Early Spaceflight (PDF). ISBN 1-58566-140-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 20, 2009. Jump up ^ Subcommittee On Military Construction, United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Armed Services (January 21–24, 1958). Supplemental military construction authorization (Air Force).: Hearings, Eighty-fifth Congress, second session, on H.R. 9739. ^ Jump up to: a b c "T. KEITH GLENNAN". NASA. August 4, 2006. Retrieved July 15, 2009. Jump up ^ Executive Order 10849 (Wikisource) Jump up ^ von Braun, Werner (1963). "Recollections of Childhood: Early Experiences in Rocketry as Told by Werner Von Braun 1963". MSFC History Office. NASA Marshall Space Flight Center. Retrieved July 15, 2009. Jump up ^ Van Atta, Richard (April 10, 2008). "50 years of Bridging the Gap" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on February 24, 2009. Retrieved July 15, 2009. ^ Jump up to: a b Fouriezos, Nick (May 30, 2016). "Your Presidential Candidates ... For the Milky Way". OZY. Retrieved May 30, 2016. Jump up ^ "T. Keith Glennan biography". NASA. August 4, 2006. Retrieved July 5, 2008. Jump up ^ Cabbage, Michael (July 15, 2009). "Bolden and Garver Confirmed by U.S. Senate" (Press release). NASA. Archived from the original on October 28, 2009. Retrieved July 16, 2009. Jump up ^ Shouse, Mary (July 9, 2009). "Welcome to NASA Headquarters". Retrieved July 15, 2009. Jump up ^ Information for Non U.S. Citizens, NASA (downloaded September 16, 2013) Jump up ^ NASA Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel Jump up ^ NASA Advisory Council--Background and Charter Jump up ^ The Air Force definition of outer space differs from that of the International Aeronautical Federation, which is 100 kilometers (330,000 ft). ^ Jump up to: a b Aerospaceweb, North American X-15. Aerospaceweb.org. Retrieved on November 3, 2011. Jump up ^ Aircraft Museum X-15." Aerospaceweb.org, November 24, 2008. ^ Jump up to: a b NASA, X-15 Hypersonic Research Program, retrieved October 17, 2011 Jump up ^ Encyclopedia Astronautica, Project 7969, retrieved October 17, 2011 Jump up ^ NASA, Project Mercury Overview Archived June 3, 2013, at the Wayback Machine., retrieved October 17, 2011 Jump up ^ Swenson Jr., Loyd S.; Grimwood, James M.; Alexander, Charles C. (1989). "11-4 Shepard's Ride". In Woods, David; Gamble, Chris. This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury (url). Published as NASA Special Publication-4201 in the NASA History Series. NASA. Retrieved July 14, 2009. Jump up ^ Swenson Jr., Loyd S.; Grimwood, James M.; Alexander, Charles C. (1989). "13-4 An American in Orbit". In Woods, David; Gamble, Chris. This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury (url). Published as NASA Special Publication-4201 in the NASA History Series. NASA. Retrieved July 14, 2009. Jump up ^ "Mercury Manned Flights Summary". NASA. Retrieved October 9, 2011. Jump up ^ "NASA history, Gagarin". NASA. Retrieved October 9, 2011. Jump up ^ Barton C. Hacker; James M. Grimwood (December 31, 2002). "10-1 The Last Hurdle". On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini (url). NASA. ISBN 978-0-16-067157-9. Archived from the original on February 1, 2010. Retrieved July 14, 2009. Jump up ^ Barton C. Hacker; James M. Grimwood (December 31, 2002). "12-5 Two Weeks in a Spacecraft". On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini. NASA. ISBN 978-0-16-067157-9. Archived from the original on February 1, 2010. Retrieved July 14, 2009. Jump up ^ Barton C. Hacker; James M. Grimwood (December 31, 2002). "13-3 An Alternative Target". On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini. NASA. ISBN 978-0-16-067157-9. Archived from the original on February 1, 2010. Retrieved July 14, 2009. Jump up ^ John F. Kennedy "Landing a man on the Moon" Address to Congress on YouTube, speech Jump up ^ Butts, Glenn; Linton, Kent (April 28, 2009). "The Joint Confidence Level Paradox: A History of Denial, 2009 NASA Cost Symposium" (PDF). pp. 25–26. ^ Jump up to: a b Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Community Development Project. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved January 2, 2017. Jump up ^ Nichols, Kenneth David (1987). The Road to Trinity: A Personal Account of How America's Nuclear Policies Were Made, pp 34–35. New York: William Morrow and Company. ISBN 0-688-06910-X. OCLC 15223648. Jump up ^ "Saturn V". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on October 7, 2011. Retrieved October 13, 2011. Jump up ^ "Apollo 8: The First Lunar Voyage". NASA. Retrieved October 13, 2011. Jump up ^ Siddiqi, Asif A. (2003). The Soviet Space Race with Apollo. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. pp. 654–656. ISBN 0-8130-2628-8. Jump up ^ "Apollo 9: Earth Orbital trials". NASA. Retrieved October 13, 2011. Jump up ^ "Apollo 10: The Dress Rehearsal". NASA. Retrieved October 13, 2011. Jump up ^ "The First Landing". NASA. Retrieved October 13, 2011. Jump up ^ Chaikin, Andrew (March 16, 1998). A Man on the Moon. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-027201-7. Jump up ^ The Phrase Finder:...a giant leap for mankind, retrieved October 1, 2011 Jump up ^ 30th Anniversary of Apollo 11, Manned Apollo Missions. NASA, 1999. ^ Jump up to: a b c Belew, Leland F., ed. (1977). Skylab Our First Space Station—NASA report (PDF). NASA. NASA-SP-400. Retrieved July 15, 2009. ^ Jump up to: a b Benson, Charles Dunlap and William David Compton. Living and Working in Space: A History of Skylab. NASA publication SP-4208. Jump up ^ Gatland, Kenneth (1976). Manned Spacecraft, Second Revision. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. p. 247. ISBN 0-02-542820-9. Jump up ^ Grinter, Kay (April 23, 2003). "The Apollo Soyuz Test Project". Archived from the original on July 25, 2009. Retrieved July 15, 2009. Jump up ^ NASA, Shuttle-MIR history, retrieved October 15, 2011 Jump up ^ Bernier, Serge (May 27, 2002). Space Odyssey: The First Forty Years of Space Exploration. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81356-3. Jump up ^ Encyclopedia Astronautica, Vostok 1, retrieved October 18, 2011 ^ Jump up to: a b NASA, Shuttle Basics, retrieved October 18, 2011 Jump up ^ Encyclopedia Astronautica, Shuttle, retrieved October 18, 2011 Jump up ^ Encyclopedia Astronautica, Spacelab. Retrieved October 20, 2011 Jump up ^ Encyclopedia Astronautica, HST. Retrieved October 20, 2011 ^ Jump up to: a b Watson, Traci (January 8, 2008). "Shuttle delays endanger space station". USA Today. Retrieved July 15, 2009. Jump up ^ "NASA's Last Space Shuttle Flight Lifts Off From Cape Canaveral". KHITS Chicago. July 8, 2011. ^ Jump up to: a b John E. Catchpole (June 17, 2008). The International Space Station: Building for the Future. Springer-Praxis. ISBN 978-0-387-78144-0. Jump up ^ "Human Spaceflight and Exploration—European Participating States". European Space Agency (ESA). 2009. Retrieved January 17, 2009. Jump up ^ Gary Kitmacher (2006). Reference Guide to the International Space Station. Canada: Apogee Books. pp. 71–80. ISBN 978-1-894959-34-6. ISSN 1496-6921. Jump up ^ Gerstenmaier, William (October 12, 2011). "Statement of William H. Gerstenmaier Associate Administrator for HEO NASA before the Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics Committee on Science, Space and Technology U. S. House of Representatives" (PDF). United States House of Representatives. Retrieved August 31, 2012. Jump up ^ Afanasev, Igor; Vorontsov, Dmitrii (January 11, 2012). "The Russian ISS segment is to be completed by 2016". Air Transport Observer. Retrieved October 14, 2012. ^ Jump up to: a b "ISS Intergovernmental Agreement". European Space Agency (ESA). April 19, 2009. Archived from the original on June 10, 2009. Retrieved April 19, 2009. Jump up ^ "Memorandum of Understanding Between the National Aeronautics and Space Administration of the United States of America and the Russian Space Agency Concerning Cooperation on the Civil International Space Station". NASA. January 29, 1998. Retrieved April 19, 2009. Jump up ^ Zak, Anatoly (October 15, 2008). "Russian Segment: Enterprise". RussianSpaceWeb. Retrieved August 4, 2012. Jump up ^ "ISS Fact sheet: FS-2011-06-009-JSC" (PDF). NASA. 2011. Retrieved September 2, 2012. Jump up ^ "MCB Joint Statement Representing Common Views on the Future of the ISS" (PDF). International Space Station Multilateral Coordination Board. February 3, 2010. Retrieved August 16, 2012. Jump up ^ Leone, Dan (June 20, 2012). "Wed, 20 June, 2012 NASA Banking on Commercial Crew To Grow ISS Population". Space News. Retrieved September 1, 2012. Jump up ^ "Nations Around the World Mark 10th Anniversary of International Space Station". NASA. November 17, 2008. Retrieved March 6, 2009. Jump up ^ Boyle, Rebecca (November 11, 2010). "The International Space Station Has Been Continuously Inhabited for Ten Years Today". Popular Science. Retrieved September 1, 2012. Jump up ^ International Space Station, Retrieved October 20, 2011 Jump up ^ Chow, Denise (November 17, 2011). "U.S. Human Spaceflight Program Still Strong, NASA Chief Says". Space.com. Retrieved July 2, 2012. Jump up ^ Potter, Ned (July 17, 2009). "Space Shuttle, Station Dock: 13 Astronauts Together". ABC News. Retrieved September 7, 2012. Jump up ^ Leone, Dan (March 29, 2012). "Sen. Mikulski Questions NASA Commercial Crew Priority". Space News. Retrieved June 30, 2012. Jump up ^ "NASA Selects Crew and Cargo Transportation to Orbit Partners" (Press release). NASA. August 18, 2006. Retrieved November 21, 2006. ^ Jump up to: a b "Moving Forward: Commercial Crew Development Building the Next Era in Spaceflight" (PDF). Rendezvous. NASA. 2010. pp. 10–17. Retrieved February 14, 2011. Just as in the COTS projects, in the CCDev project we have fixed-price, pay-for-performance milestones" Thorn said. "There’s no extra money invested by NASA if the projects cost more than projected. Jump up ^ McAlister, Phil (October 2010). "The Case for Commercial Crew" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved July 2, 2012. Jump up ^ "NASA Awards Space Station Commercial Resupply Services Contracts". NASA, December 23, 2008. Jump up ^ "Space Exploration Technologies Corporation – Press". Spacex.com. Retrieved July 17, 2009. Jump up ^ Clark, Stephen (June 2, 2012). "NASA expects quick start to SpaceX cargo contract". SpaceFlightNow. Retrieved June 30, 2012. Jump up ^ Bergin, Chris (September 28, 2013). "Orbital’s Cygnus successfully berthed on the ISS". NASASpaceFlight.com (not affiliated with NASA). Retrieved October 17, 2013. Jump up ^ "SpaceX/NASA Discuss launch of Falcon 9 rocket and Dragon capsule". NASA. May 22, 2012. Retrieved June 23, 2012. Jump up ^ Berger, Brian (February 1, 2011). "Biggest CCDev Award Goes to Sierra Nevada". Imaginova Corp. Retrieved December 13, 2011. Jump up ^ Morring, Frank (October 10, 2012). "Boeing Gets Most Money With Smallest Investment". Aviation Week. Retrieved October 5, 2012. Jump up ^ Dean, James (April 18, 2011). "NASA awards $270 million for commercial crew efforts". space.com. Archived from the original on April 19, 2011. Retrieved May 11, 2011. Jump up ^ "NASA Announces Next Steps in Effort to Launch Americans from U.S. Soil". NASA. August 3, 2012. Retrieved August 3, 2012. Jump up ^ Bolden, Charlie. "American Companies Selected to Return Astronaut Launches to American Soil". NASA.gov. Retrieved September 16, 2014. ^ Jump up to: a b Foust, Jeff (September 19, 2014). "NASA Commercial Crew Awards Leave Unanswered Questions". Space News. Retrieved September 21, 2014. “We basically awarded based on the proposals that we were given,” Kathy Lueders, NASA commercial crew program manager, said in a teleconference with reporters after the announcement. “Both contracts have the same requirements. The companies proposed the value within which they were able to do the work, and the government accepted that.” Jump up ^ Achenbach, Joel (February 1, 2010). "NASA budget for 2011 eliminates funds for manned lunar missions". Washington Post. Retrieved February 1, 2010. ^ Jump up to: a b "President Barack Obama on Space Exploration in the 21st Century". Office of the Press Secretary. April 15, 2010. Retrieved July 4, 2012. ^ Jump up to: a b "Today – President Signs NASA 2010 Authorization Act". Universetoday.com. Retrieved November 20, 2010. Jump up ^ Svitak, Amy (March 31, 2011). "Holdren: NASA Law Doesn't Square with Budgetary Reality". Space News. Retrieved July 4, 2012. ^ Jump up to: a b "Bill Text - 111th Congress (2009-2010) - THOMAS (Library of Congress)". loc.gov. Jump up ^ "NASA Announces Design for New Deep Space Exploration System". NASA. September 14, 2011. Retrieved April 28, 2012. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Bergin, Chris (February 23, 2012). "Acronyms to Ascent – SLS managers create development milestone roadmap". NASA. Retrieved April 29, 2012. ^ Jump up to: a b Grady, Mary (June 5, 2016). "NASA and DARPA plan to release new X-Planes". Yahoo Tech. Retrieved June 8, 2016. Jump up ^ "NASA builds deep space habitats on Earth". Retrieved December 30, 2016. Jump up ^ "Launch History (Cumulative)" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved September 30, 2011. Jump up ^ "NASA Experimental Communications Satellites, 1958–1995". NASA. Retrieved September 30, 2011. Jump up ^ "NASA, Explorers program". NASA. Retrieved September 20, 2011. Jump up ^ NASA mission STS-31 (35) Archived August 18, 2011, at WebCite Jump up ^ "JPL, Chapter 4. Interplanetary Trajectories". NASA. Retrieved September 30, 2011. Jump up ^ "Missions to Mars". The Planet Society. Retrieved September 30, 2011. Jump up ^ "Missions to Jupiter". The Planet Society. Retrieved September 30, 2011. Jump up ^ "JPL Voyager". JPL. Retrieved September 30, 2011. Jump up ^ "Pioneer 10 spacecraft send last signal". NASA. Retrieved September 30, 2011. Jump up ^ "The golden record". JPL. Retrieved September 30, 2011. Jump up ^ "New Horizon". JHU/APL. Retrieved September 30, 2011. Jump up ^ "Voyages Beyond the Solar System: The Voyager Interstellar Mission". NASA. Retrieved September 30, 2011. Jump up ^ NASA Staff (November 26, 2011). "Mars Science Laboratory". NASA. Retrieved November 26, 2011. Jump up ^ "NASA Launches Super-Size Rover to Mars: 'Go, Go!'". New York Times. Associated Press. November 26, 2011. Retrieved November 26, 2011. Jump up ^ Kenneth Chang (August 6, 2012). "Curiosity Rover Lands Safely on Mars". The New York Times. Retrieved August 6, 2012. Jump up ^ Wilson, Jim (September 15, 2008). "NASA Selects 'MAVEN' Mission to Study Mars Atmosphere". NASA. Retrieved July 15, 2009. Jump up ^ NASA Office of Public Affairs (December 4, 2006). "GLOBAL EXPLORATION STRATEGY AND LUNAR ARCHITECTURE" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved July 15, 2009. Jump up ^ "Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee" (PDF). Office of Science and Technology Policy. October 22, 2009. Retrieved December 13, 2011. Jump up ^ Goddard, Jacqui (February 2, 2010). "Nasa reduced to pipe dreams as Obama cancels Moon flights". The Times. London. Retrieved May 19, 2010. Jump up ^ "NASA Strategic Plan, 2011" (PDF). NASA Headquarters. Jump up ^ Boyle, Rebecca (June 5, 2012). "NASA Adopts Two Spare Spy Telescopes, Each Maybe More Powerful than Hubble". Popular Science. Popular Science Technology Group. Retrieved June 5, 2012. Jump up ^ "NASA Announces Design for New Deep Space Exploration System". NASA. September 14, 2011. Retrieved December 13, 2011. Jump up ^ "NASA’s Orion Flight Test Yields Critical Data". NASA. Jump up ^ JPL, NASA. "First Recorded Voice from Mars". nasa.gov. Jump up ^ "Radioisotope Power Systems for Space Exploration" (PDF). March 2011. Retrieved March 13, 2015. ^ Jump up to: a b New Horizons II Final Report - March 2005 Jump up ^ Eric Berger, Houston Chronicle, April 29, 2015 "A history primer: NASA’s robust Earth Science program now under attack originated in the Reagan and Bush administrations," http://blog.chron.com/sciguy/2015/04/a-history-primer-nasas-robust-earth-science-program-now-under-attack-originated-in-the-reagan-and-bush-administrations/ Jump up ^ Eric Berger, "Ars Tecnica," October 29, 2015, "Republicans outraged over NASA earth science programs… that Reagan began" http://arstechnica.com/science/2015/10/republicans-outraged-over-nasa-earth-science-programs-that-reagan-began/ Jump up ^ "Cubes in Space". www.cubesinspace.com. Retrieved July 1, 2017. Jump up ^ NASA's climate page. climate.nasa.gov/ Jump up ^ NASA, July 19, 2016 "2016 Climate Trends Continue to Break Records" https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2016/climate-trends-continue-to-break-records Jump up ^ Jason Samenow, "Washington Post," July 23, 2016 "Trump adviser proposes dismantling NASA climate research" https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/capital-weather-gang/wp/2016/11/23/trump-adviser-proposes-dismantling-nasa-climate-research/ Jump up ^ "MSFC_Fact_sheet" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved October 1, 2011. Jump up ^ Rogers, Simon. (February 1, 2010) Nasa budgets: US spending on space travel since 1958 |Society. theguardian.com. Retrieved on August 26, 2013. Jump up ^ Launius, Roger D. "Public opinion polls and perceptions of US human spaceflight". Division of Space History, National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Jump up ^ "Fiscal Year 2013 Budget Estimates" (PDF). NASA. Retrieved February 13, 2013. Jump up ^ "Past, Present, and Future of NASA — U.S. Senate Testimony". Hayden Planetarium. March 7, 2012. Retrieved December 4, 2012. Jump up ^ "Past, Present, and Future of NASA — U.S. Senate Testimony (Video)". Hayden Planetarium. March 7, 2012. Retrieved December 4, 2012. Jump up ^ Clark, Stephen (December 14, 2014). "NASA gets budget hike in spending bill passed by Congress". Spaceflight Now. Retrieved December 15, 2014. Jump up ^ "Rocket Soot Emissions and Climate Change". The Aerospace Corporation. July 31, 2013. Retrieved January 7, 2014. Jump up ^ "Short-Term Energy Outlook" (PDF). U.S. Energy Information Administration. February 9, 2016. U.S. Petroleum and Other Liquids Jump up ^ "Spaceflight Now - Dragon Mission Report - Mission Status Center". Retrieved July 4, 2015. Jump up ^ "Space Shuttle Main Engines". NASA. July 16, 2009. Retrieved January 20, 2015. Jump up ^ "Constellation Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement". NASA. August 1, 2011. Retrieved June 19, 2014. Jump up ^ Shiga, David (September 28, 2007). "Next-generation ion engine sets new thrust record". NewScientist. Retrieved February 2, 2011. Jump up ^ Goto, T; Nakata Y; Morita S (2003). "Will xenon be a stranger or a friend?: the cost, benefit, and future of xenon anesthesia". Anesthesiology. 98 (1): 1–2. PMID 12502969. doi:10.1097/00000542-200301000-00002. Retrieved September 15, 2010. Jump up ^ Michael K. Ewert (2006). "Johnson Space Center's Role in a Sustainable Future" (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 27, 2008. Retrieved April 28, 2008. Jump up ^ "NASA - NASA's New Building Awarded the U.S. Green Building Council LEED Gold Rating". nasa.gov. External links Listen to this article (info/dl) MENU0:00

This audio file was created from a revision of the "NASA" article dated September 1, 2005, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. (Audio help) More spoken articles Wikimedia Commons has media related to NASA. Wikisource has original text related to this article: National Aeronautics and Space Act Wikisource has original works written by or about: National Aeronautics and Space Administration General Official NASA site NASA Engineering and Safety Center NASA Photos and NASA Images NASA Launch Schedule NASA Television and NASA podcasts NASA on Google+ NASA's channel on YouTube @NASA on Twitter Edit this at Wikidata NASA on Facebook NASA in the Federal Register NASA Watch, an agency watchdog site The Gateway to Astronaut Photography of Earth NASA Documents relating to the Space Program, 1953–62, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library Online documents pertaining to the early history and development of NASA, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library NASA records available for research at the National Archives at Atlanta Technical Report Archive and Image Library (TRAIL) – historic technical reports from NASA and other federal agencies NASA Alumni League, NAL Florida Chapter, NAL JSC Chapter Works by NASA at Project Gutenberg Works by or about NASA at Internet Archive Further reading How NASA works on howstuffworks.com NASA History Division Monthly look at Exploration events NODIS: NASA Online Directives Information System NTRS: NASA Technical Reports Server NASA History and the Challenge of Keeping the Contemporary Past Quest: The History of Spaceflight Quarterly [show] v t e NASA [show] v t e NASA facilities [show] Articles and topics related to NASA Authority control WorldCat Identities VIAF: 146202023 LCCN: n78087581 ISNI: 0000 0001 1456 7559 GND: 2294-9 SELIBR: 123881 SUDOC: 027773299 BNF: cb11868484t (data) ULAN: 500265440 NDL: 00276299 NKC: kn20010711417 BNE: XX148293 Categories: NASAGovernment agencies established in 19581958 establishments in Washington, D.C.Organizations based in Washington, D.C.Government of the United StatesWebby Award winners Navigation menu Sashi06 Alerts (0) Notices (0) TalkSandboxPreferencesBetaWatchlistContributionsLog outArticleTalkReadView sourceView historyWatchSearch

Search Wikipedia Go Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch Ænglisc العربية Aragonés Asturianu Azərbaycanca تۆرکجه বাংলা Bahasa Banjar Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Estremeñu Euskara فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Gaeilge Gaelg Gàidhlig Galego ગુજરાતી 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ Къарачай-малкъар ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kurdî ລາວ Latina Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių Limburgs Lumbaart Magyar मैथिली Македонски മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური مصرى مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu Baso Minangkabau Монгол မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाली 日本語 Napulitano Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oromoo Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی Papiamentu پښتو Piemontèis Plattdüütsch Polski Português Qaraqalpaqsha Română Русский संस्कृतम् Scots Seeltersk Shqip Sicilianu සිංහල Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Soomaaliga کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча/tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray Yorùbá 粵語 Žemaitėška 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 22 August 2017, at 15:14. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

Ashoka
Ashoka ( English: /əˈʃoʊkə/; IAST: Aśoka; died 232 BCE)[5] was an Indian emperor of the Maurya Dynasty who ruled almost all of the Indian subcontinent from c. 268 to 232 BCE.[6] He was the grandson of the founder of the Maurya Dynasty, Chandragupta Maurya, who had created one of the largest empires in ancient India and then renounced it all to become a Jain monk.[7] One of India's greatest emperors, Ashoka expanded Chandragupta's empire, and reigned over a realm that stretched from present-day Afghanistan in the west to Bangladesh in the east. It covered the entire Indian subcontinent except for parts of present-day Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. The empire's capital was Pataliputra (in Magadha, present-day Patna), with provincial capitals at Taxila and Ujjain.

In about 260 BCE, Ashoka waged a destructive war against the state of Kalinga (modern Odisha).[8] He conquered Kalinga, which none of his ancestors had done.[9] Some scholars suggest he belonged to the Jain tradition, but it is generally accepted that he embraced Buddhism.[10] Legends state he converted after witnessing the mass deaths of the Kalinga War, which he himself had waged out of a desire for conquest. "Ashoka reflected on the war in Kalinga, which reportedly had resulted in more than 100,000 deaths and 150,000 deportations, ending at around 200,000 deaths."[11] Ashoka converted to Buddhism about 263 BCE.[8] He is remembered for the Ashoka pillars and edicts, for sending Buddhist monks to Sri Lanka and Central Asia, and for establishing monuments marking several significant sites in the life of Gautama Buddha.[12]

Beyond the Edicts of Ashoka, biographical information about him relies on legends written centuries later, such as the 2nd-century CE Ashokavadana ("Narrative of Ashoka", a part of the Divyavadana), and in the Sri Lankan text Mahavamsa ("Great Chronicle"). The emblem of the modern Republic of India is an adaptation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka. Ashoka's name "Aśoka" means "painless, without sorrow" in Sanskrit (the a privativum and śoka, "pain, distress"). In his edicts, he is referred to as Devānāmpriya (Pali Devānaṃpiya or "the Beloved of the Gods"), and Priyadarśin (Pali Piyadasī or "He who regards everyone with affection"). His fondness for his name's connection to the Saraca asoca tree, or "Ashoka tree", is also referenced in the Ashokavadana. H.G. Wells wrote of Ashoka in his book The Outline of History: "Amidst the tens of thousands of names of monarchs that crowd the columns of history, their majesties and graciousnesses and serenities and royal highnesses and the like, the name of Ashoka shines, and shines, almost alone, a star."

Contents [hide] 1	Biography 1.1	Ashoka's early life 1.2	Rise to power 1.3	Conquest of Kalinga 1.4	Marriage 1.5	Buddhist conversion 1.6	Death and legacy 1.6.1	Buddhist kingship 2	Historical sources 2.1	Symbolism 3	Perceptions and historiography 3.1	Focus of debate 3.2	Legends of Ashoka 3.3	Ashoka and the relics of the Buddha 4	Contributions 4.1	Approach towards religions 4.2	Global spread of Buddhism 4.3	Hellenistic world 4.4	As administrator 4.5	Animal welfare 4.6	Ashoka Chakra 4.7	Stone architecture 4.7.1	Pillars of Ashoka (Ashokstambha) 4.7.2	Lion Capital of Ashoka (Ashokmudra) 4.7.3	Constructions credited to Ashoka 5	In art, film and literature 6	See also 7	References 7.1	Citations 7.2	Sources 8	External links Biography Ashoka's early life Ashoka was born to the Mauryan emperor, Bindusara and Subhadrangī (or Dharmā).[13] He was the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, founder of the Maurya dynasty. Broadly, Chandragupta was born in a humble family, abandoned, raised as a son by another family, then with the training and counsel of Chanakya of Arthashastra fame ultimately built one of the largest empires in ancient India.[14][15][16] Ashoka's grandfather Chandragupta renounced it all, and became a monk in the Jain tradition.[7] According to Roman historian Appian, Chandragupta had made a "marital alliance" with Seleucus; there is thus a possibility that Ashoka had a Seleucid Greek grandmother.[17][18] An Indian Puranic source, the Pratisarga Parva of the Bhavishya Purana, also described the marriage of Chandragupta with a Greek ("Yavana") princess, daughter of Seleucus.[19]

The ancient Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain texts provide varying biographical accounts. The Avadana texts mention that his mother was queen Subhadrangī. According to the Ashokavadana, she was the daughter of a Brahmin from the city of Champa.[20][21]:205 She gave him the name Ashoka, meaning "one without sorrow". The Divyāvadāna tells a similar story, but gives the name of the queen as Janapadakalyānī.[22][23] Ashoka had several elder siblings, all of whom were his half-brothers from the other wives of his father Bindusara. Ashoka was given royal military training.[24]

Rise to power

Approximate extent of Maurya empire under Ashoka. The empire stretched from Afghanistan to Bengal to southern India The Buddhist text Divyavadana describes Ashoka putting down a revolt due to activities of wicked ministers. This may have been an incident in Bindusara's times. Taranatha's account states that Chanakya, Bindusara's chief advisor, destroyed the nobles and kings of 16 towns and made himself the master of all territory between the eastern and the western seas. Some historians consider this as an indication of Bindusara's conquest of the Deccan while others consider it as suppression of a revolt. Following this, Ashoka was stationed at Ujain, the capital of Malwa, as governor.[20]

Bindusara's death in 272 BCE led to a war over succession. According to the Divyavadana, Bindusara wanted his elder son Susima to succeed him but Ashoka was supported by his father's ministers, who found Susima to be arrogant and disrespectful towards them.[25] A minister named Radhagupta seems to have played an important role in Ashoka's rise to the throne. The Ashokavadana recounts Radhagupta's offering of an old royal elephant to Ashoka for him to ride to the Garden of the Gold Pavilion where King Bindusara would determine his successor. Ashoka later got rid of the legitimate heir to the throne by tricking him into entering a pit filled with live coals. Radhagupta, according to the Ashokavadana, would later be appointed prime minister by Ashoka once he had gained the throne. The Dipavansa and Mahavansa refer to Ashoka's killing 99 of his brothers, sparing only one, named Vitashoka or Tissa,[4] although there is no clear proof about this incident (many such accounts are saturated with mythological elements). The coronation happened in 269 BCE, four years after his succession to the throne.[citation needed]

Emperor Ashoka and his Queen at the Deer Park. Sanchi relief. Buddhist legends state that Ashoka was bad-tempered and of a wicked nature. He built Ashoka's Hell, an elaborate torture chamber described as a "Paradisal Hell" due to the contrast between its beautiful exterior and the acts carried out within by his appointed executioner, Girikaa.[26] This earned him the name of Chanda Ashoka (Caṇḍa Aśoka) meaning "Ashoka the Fierce" in Sanskrit. Professor Charles Drekmeier cautions that the Buddhist legends tend to dramatise the change that Buddhism brought in him, and therefore, exaggerate Ashoka's past wickedness and his piousness after the conversion.[27]

Ascending the throne, Ashoka expanded his empire over the next eight years, from the present-day Assam in the East to Balochistan in the West; from the Pamir Knot in Afghanistan in the north to the peninsula of southern India except for present day Tamil Nadu and Kerala which were ruled by the three ancient Tamil kingdoms.[23][28]

Conquest of Kalinga Main article: Kalinga War While the early part of Ashoka's reign was apparently quite bloodthirsty, he became a follower of the Buddha's teachings after his conquest of Kalinga on the east coast of India in the present-day states of Odisha and North Coastal Andhra Pradesh. Kalinga was a state that prided itself on its sovereignty and democracy. With its monarchical parliamentary democracy it was quite an exception in ancient Bharata where there existed the concept of Rajdharma. Rajdharma means the duty of the rulers, which was intrinsically entwined with the concept of bravery and dharma. The Kalinga War happened eight years after his coronation. From his 13th inscription, we come to know that the battle was a massive one and caused the deaths of more than 100,000 soldiers and many civilians who rose up in defence; over 150,000 were deported.[29] When he was walking through the grounds of Kalinga after his conquest, rejoicing in his victory, he was moved by the number of bodies strewn there and the wails of the bereaved.[citation needed]

Marriage From the various sources that speak of his life, Ashoka is believed to have had five wives. They were named Devi (or Vedisa-Mahadevi-Shakyakumari), the second queen, Karuvaki, Asandhimitra (designated agramahisī or "chief queen"), Padmavati, and Tishyarakshita.[30] He is similarly believed to have had four sons and two daughters: a son by Devi named Mahendra (Pali: Mahinda), Tivara (son of Karuvaki), Kunala (son of Padmavati]], and Jalauka (mentioned in the Kashmir Chronicle), a daughter of Devi named Sanghamitra (Pali: Sanghamitta), and another daughter named Charumati.[30]

Buddhist conversion

A similar four "Indian lion" Lion Capital of Ashoka atop an intact Ashoka Pillar at Wat U Mong near Chiang Mai, Thailand showing another larger Dharma Chakra / Ashoka Chakra atop the four lions. Edict 13 on the Edicts of Ashoka Rock Inscriptions reflect the great remorse the king felt after observing the destruction of Kalinga:

His Majesty felt remorse on account of the conquest of Kalinga because, during the subjugation of a previously unconquered country, slaughter, death, and taking away captive of the people necessarily occur, whereas His Majesty feels profound sorrow and regret.[citation needed]

The edict goes on to address the even greater degree of sorrow and regret resulting from Ashoka's understanding that the friends and families of deceased would suffer greatly too.[31]

Legend says that one day after the war was over, Ashoka ventured out to roam the city and all he could see were burnt houses and scattered corpses. The lethal war with Kalinga transformed the vengeful Emperor Ashoka to a stable and peaceful emperor and he became a patron of Buddhism. According to the prominent Indologist, A. L. Basham, Ashoka's personal religion became Buddhism, if not before, then certainly after the Kalinga war. However, according to Basham, the Dharma officially propagated by Ashoka was not Buddhism at all.[32] Nevertheless, his patronage led to the expansion of Buddhism in the Mauryan empire and other kingdoms during his rule, and worldwide from about 250 BCE.[33] Prominent in this cause were his son Mahinda (Mahendra) and daughter Sanghamitra (whose name means "friend of the Sangha"), who established Buddhism in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka).[34]

Ashokan Pillar at Vaishali Death and legacy

Ashoka's Major Rock Edict at Junagadh contains inscriptions by Ashoka (fourteen of the Edicts of Ashoka), Rudradaman I and Skandagupta. Ashoka ruled for an estimated 36 years and died in 232 BCE.[35] Legend states that during his cremation, his body burned for seven days and nights.[36] After his death, the Mauryan dynasty lasted just fifty more years until his empire stretched over almost all of the Indian subcontinent. Ashoka had many wives and children, but many of their names are lost to time. His chief consort (agramahisi) for the majority of his reign was his wife, Asandhimitra, who apparently bore him no children.[37]

In his old age, he seems to have come under the spell of his youngest wife Tishyaraksha. It is said that she had got Ashoka's son Kunala, the regent in Takshashila and the heir presumptive to the throne, blinded by a wily stratagem. The official executioners spared Kunala and he became a wandering singer accompanied by his favourite wife Kanchanmala. In Pataliputra, Ashoka heard Kunala's song, and realised that Kunala's misfortune may have been a punishment for some past sin of the emperor himself. He condemned Tishyaraksha to death, restoring Kunala to the court. In the Ashokavadana, Kunala is portrayed as forgiving Tishyaraksha, having obtained enlightenment through Buddhist practice. While he urges Ashoka to forgive her as well, Ashoka does not respond with the same forgiveness.[26] Kunala was succeeded by his son, Samprati, who ruled for 50 years until his death.[citation needed]

The reign of Ashoka Maurya might have disappeared into history as the ages passed by, had he not left behind records of his reign. These records are in the form of sculpted pillars and rocks inscribed with a variety of actions and teachings he wished to be published under his name. The language used for inscription was in one of the Prakrit "common" languages etched in a Brahmi script.[38]

In the year 185 BCE, about fifty years after Ashoka's death, the last Maurya ruler, Brihadratha, was assassinated by the commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, Pushyamitra Shunga, while he was taking the Guard of Honor of his forces. Pushyamitra Shunga founded the Shunga dynasty (185-75 BCE) and ruled just a fragmented part of the Mauryan Empire. Many of the northwestern territories of the Mauryan Empire (modern-day Afghanistan and Northern Pakistan) became the Indo-Greek Kingdom.[citation needed]

King Ashoka, the third monarch of the Indian Mauryan dynasty, is also considered as one of the most exemplary rulers who ever lived.[39]

Buddhist kingship

The Khalsi rock edict of Ashoka, which mentions the Greek kings Antiochus, Ptolemy, Antigonus, Magas and Alexander by name, as recipients of his teachings. Main article: Buddhist kingship Further information: History of Buddhism, History of Buddhism in India, Buddhism in Nepal, Buddhism in Sri Lanka, and Buddhism in Burma One of the more enduring legacies of Ashoka was the model that he provided for the relationship between Buddhism and the state. Emperor Ashoka was seen as a role model to leaders within the Buddhist community. He not only provided guidance and strength, but he also created personal relationships with his supporters.[40] Throughout Theravada Southeastern Asia, the model of rulership embodied by Ashoka replaced the notion of divine kingship that had previously dominated (in the Angkor kingdom, for instance). Under this model of 'Buddhist kingship', the king sought to legitimise his rule not through descent from a divine source, but by supporting and earning the approval of the Buddhist sangha. Following Ashoka's example, kings established monasteries, funded the construction of stupas, and supported the ordination of monks in their kingdom. Many rulers also took an active role in resolving disputes over the status and regulation of the sangha, as Ashoka had in calling a conclave to settle a number of contentious issues during his reign. This development ultimately led to a close association in many Southeast Asian countries between the monarchy and the religious hierarchy, an association that can still be seen today in the state-supported Buddhism of Thailand and the traditional role of the Thai king as both a religious and secular leader. Ashoka also said that all his courtiers always governed the people in a moral manner.[citation needed]

According to the legends mentioned in the 2nd-century CE text Ashokavadana, Ashoka was not non-violent after adopting Buddhism. In one instance, a non-Buddhist in Pundravardhana drew a picture showing the Buddha bowing at the feet of Nirgrantha Jnatiputra (identified with Mahavira, 24th Tirthankara of Jainism). On complaint from a Buddhist devotee, Ashoka issued an order to arrest him, and subsequently, another order to kill all the Ajivikas in Pundravardhana. Around 18,000 followers of the Ajivika sect were executed as a result of this order.[21][41] Sometime later, another Nirgrantha follower in Pataliputra drew a similar picture. Ashoka burnt him and his entire family alive in their house.[41] He also announced an award of one dinara (silver coin) to anyone who brought him the head of a Nirgrantha heretic. According to Ashokavadana, as a result of this order, his own brother was mistaken for a heretic and killed by a cowherd.[21] However, for several reasons, scholars say, these stories of persecutions of rival sects by Ashoka appear to be clear fabrications arising out of sectarian propaganda.[41][42][43]

Historical sources Main articles: Edicts of Ashoka, Ashokavadana, Mahavamsa, and Dipavamsa Ashoka was almost forgotten by the historians of the early British India, but James Prinsep contributed in the revelation of historical sources. Another important historian was British archaeologist John Hubert Marshall, who was director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India. His main interests were Sanchi and Sarnath, in addition to Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Sir Alexander Cunningham, a British archaeologist and army engineer, and often known as the father of the Archaeological Survey of India, unveiled heritage sites like the Bharhut Stupa, Sarnath, Sanchi, and the Mahabodhi Temple. Mortimer Wheeler, a British archaeologist, also exposed Ashokan historical sources, especially the Taxila.[citation needed]

The Kandahar Edict of Ashoka, a bilingual inscription (in Greek and Aramaic) by King Ashoka, discovered at Kandahar (National Museum of Afghanistan). Information about the life and reign of Ashoka primarily comes from a relatively small number of Buddhist sources. In particular, the Sanskrit Ashokavadana ('Story of Ashoka'), written in the 2nd century, and the two Pāli chronicles of Sri Lanka (the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa) provide most of the currently known information about Ashoka. Additional information is contributed by the Edicts of Ashoka, whose authorship was finally attributed to the Ashoka of Buddhist legend after the discovery of dynastic lists that gave the name used in the edicts (Priyadarshi—'He who regards everyone with affection') as a title or additional name of Ashoka Maurya. Architectural remains of his period have been found at Kumhrar, Patna, which include an 80-pillar hypostyle hall.[citation needed]

Edicts of Ashoka -The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka, as well as boulders and cave walls, made by Ashoka during his reign. These inscriptions are dispersed throughout modern-day Pakistan and India, and represent the first tangible evidence of Buddhism. The edicts describe in detail the first wide expansion of Buddhism through the sponsorship of one of the most powerful kings of Indian history, offering more information about Ashoka's proselytism, moral precepts, religious precepts, and his notions of social and animal welfare.[44]

Ashokavadana – The Aśokāvadāna is a 2nd-century CE text related to the legend of Ashoka. The legend was translated into Chinese by Fa Hien in 300 CE. It is essentially a Hinayana text, and its world is that of Mathura and North-west India. The emphasis of this little known text is on exploring the relationship between the king and the community of monks (the Sangha) and setting up an ideal of religious life for the laity (the common man) by telling appealing stories about religious exploits. The most startling feature is that Ashoka’s conversion has nothing to do with the Kalinga war, which is not even mentioned, nor is there a word about his belonging to the Maurya dynasty. Equally surprising is the record of his use of state power to spread Buddhism in an uncompromising fashion. The legend of Veetashoka provides insights into Ashoka’s character that are not available in the widely known Pali records.[26]

A punch-marked Coin of Ashoka[45]

A silver coin of 1 karshapana of the empire Maurya, period of Ashoka Maurya towards 272-232 BC, workshop of Mathura. Obv: Symbols including a sun and an animal Rev: Symbol Dimensions: 13.92 x 11.75 mm Weight: 3.4 g. Mahavamsa -The Mahavamsa ("Great Chronicle") is a historical poem written in the Pali language of the kings of Sri Lanka. It covers the period from the coming of King Vijaya of Kalinga (ancient Odisha) in 543 BCE to the reign of King Mahasena (334–361). As it often refers to the royal dynasties of India, the Mahavamsa is also valuable for historians who wish to date and relate contemporary royal dynasties in the Indian subcontinent. It is very important in dating the consecration of Ashoka.[citation needed]

Dwipavamsa -The Dwipavamsa, or "Dweepavamsa", (i.e., Chronicle of the Island, in Pali) is the oldest historical record of Sri Lanka. The chronicle is believed to be compiled from Atthakatha and other sources around the 3rd or 4th century CE. King Dhatusena (4th century) had ordered that the Dipavamsa be recited at the Mahinda festival held annually in Anuradhapura.[citation needed]

Symbolism

Caduceus symbol on a punch-marked coin of the Maurya Empire in India, in the 3rd-2nd century BCE. The caduceus appears as a symbol of the punch-marked coins of the Maurya Empire in India, in the 3rd-2nd century BCE. Numismatic research suggests that this symbol was the symbol of king Ashoka, his personal "Mudra".[46] This symbol was not used on the pre-Mauryan punch-marked coins, but only on coins of the Maurya period, together with the three arched-hill symbol, the "peacock on the hill", the triskelis and the Taxila mark.[47]

Perceptions and historiography The use of Buddhist sources in reconstructing the life of Ashoka has had a strong influence on perceptions of Ashoka, as well as the interpretations of his Edicts. Building on traditional accounts, early scholars regarded Ashoka as a primarily Buddhist monarch who underwent a conversion to Buddhism and was actively engaged in sponsoring and supporting the Buddhist monastic institution. Some scholars have tended to question this assessment. Romila Thappar writes about Ashoka that "We need to see him both as a statesman in the context of inheriting and sustaining an empire in a particular historical period, and as a person with a strong commitment to changing society through what might be called the propagation of social ethics."[48] The only source of information not attributable to Buddhist sources are the Ashokan Edicts, and these do not explicitly state that Ashoka was a Buddhist. In his edicts, Ashoka expresses support for all the major religions of his time: Buddhism, Brahmanism, Jainism, and Ajivikaism, and his edicts addressed to the population at large (there are some addressed specifically to Buddhists; this is not the case for the other religions) generally focus on moral themes members of all the religions would accept. For example, Amartya Sen writes, "The Indian Emperor Ashoka in the third century BCE presented many political inscriptions in favor of tolerance and individual freedom, both as a part of state policy and in the relation of different people to each other".[49]

However, the edicts alone strongly indicate that he was a Buddhist. In one edict he belittles rituals, and he banned Vedic animal sacrifices; these strongly suggest that he at least did not look to the Vedic tradition for guidance. Furthermore, many edicts are expressed to Buddhists alone; in one, Ashoka declares himself to be an "upasaka", and in another he demonstrates a close familiarity with Buddhist texts. He erected rock pillars at Buddhist holy sites, but did not do so for the sites of other religions. He also used the word "dhamma" to refer to qualities of the heart that underlie moral action; this was an exclusively Buddhist use of the word. However, he used the word more in the spirit than as a strict code of conduct. Romila Thappar writes, "His dhamma did not derive from divine inspiration, even if its observance promised heaven. It was more in keeping with the ethic conditioned by the logic of given situations. His logic of Dhamma was intended to influence the conduct of categories of people, in relation to each other. Especially where they involved unequal relationships."[48] Finally, he promotes ideals that correspond to the first three steps of the Buddha's graduated discourse.[50]

Interestingly, the Ashokavadana presents an alternate view of the familiar Ashoka; one in which his conversion has nothing to do with the Kalinga war or about his descent from the Maurya dynasty. Instead, Ashoka's reason for adopting non-violence appears much more personal. The Ashokavadana shows that the main source of Ashoka's conversion and the acts of welfare that followed are rooted instead in intense personal anguish at its core, from a wellspring inside himself rather than spurred by a specific event. It thereby illuminates Ashoka as more humanly ambitious and passionate, with both greatness and flaws. This Ashoka is very different from the "shadowy do-gooder" of later Pali chronicles.[26]

Much of the knowledge about Ashoka comes from the several inscriptions that he had carved on pillars and rocks throughout the empire. All his inscriptions present him as compassionate and loving. In the Kalinga rock edits, he addresses his people as his "children" and mentions that as a father he desires their good.[51] These inscriptions promoted Buddhist morality and encouraged nonviolence and adherence to dharma (duty or proper behaviour), and they talk of his fame and conquered lands as well as the neighbouring kingdoms holding up his might. One also gets some primary information about the Kalinga War and Ashoka's allies plus some useful knowledge on the civil administration. The Ashoka Pillar at Sarnath is the most notable of the relics left by Ashoka. Made of sandstone, this pillar records the visit of the emperor to Sarnath, in the 3rd century BCE. It has a four-lion capital (four lions standing back to back), which was adopted as the emblem of the modern Indian republic. The lion symbolises both Ashoka's imperial rule and the kingship of the Buddha. In translating these monuments, historians learn the bulk of what is assumed to have been true fact of the Mauryan Empire. It is difficult to determine whether or not some events ever actually happened, but the stone etchings clearly depict how Ashoka wanted to be thought of and remembered.[citation needed]

Focus of debate Recently scholarly analysis determined that the three major foci of debate regarding Ashoka involve the nature of the Maurya empire; the extent and impact of Ashoka's pacifism; and what is referred to in the Inscriptions as dhamma or dharma, which connotes goodness, virtue, and charity. Some historians[who?] have argued that Ashoka's pacifism undermined the "military backbone" of the Maurya empire, while others have suggested that the extent and impact of his pacifism have been "grossly exaggerated". The dhamma of the Edicts has been understood as concurrently a Buddhist lay ethic, a set of politico-moral ideas, a "sort of universal religion", or as an Ashokan innovation. On the other hand, it has also been interpreted as an essentially political ideology that sought to knit together a vast and diverse empire. Scholars are still attempting to analyse both the expressed and implied political ideas of the Edicts (particularly in regard to imperial vision), and make inferences pertaining to how that vision was grappling with problems and political realities of a "virtually subcontinental, and culturally and economically highly variegated, 3rd century BCE Indian empire. Nonetheless, it remains clear that Ashoka's Inscriptions represent the earliest corpus of royal inscriptions in the Indian subcontinent, and therefore prove to be a very important innovation in royal practices."[52]

Legends of Ashoka

Ashoka and his two queens, in a relief at Sanchi. Until the Ashokan inscriptions were discovered and deciphered, stories about Ashoka were based on the legendary accounts of his life and not strictly on historical facts. These legends were found in Buddhist textual sources such as the text of Ashokavadana. The Ashokavadana is a subset of a larger set of legends in the Divyavadana, though it could have existed independently as well. Following are some of the legends narrated in the Ashokavadana about Ashoka:

1) One of the stories talks about an event that occurred in a past life of Ashoka, when he was a small child named Jaya. Once when Jaya was playing on the roadside, the Buddha came by. The young child put a handful of earth in the Buddha’s begging bowl as his gift to the saint and declared his wish to one day become a great emperor and follower of the Buddha. The Buddha is said to have smiled a smile that “illuminated the universe with its rays of light”.[53] These rays of light are then said to have re-entered the Buddha’s left palm, signifying that this child Jaya would, in his next life, become a great emperor. The Buddha is said to have even turned to his disciple Ananda and is said to have predicted that this child would be “a great, righteous chakravarti king, who would rule his empire from his capital at Pataliputra”.

2) Another story aims to portray Ashoka as an evil person in order to convey the importance of his transformation into a good person upon adopting Buddhism.[54] It begins by stating that due to Ashoka’s physical ugliness he was disliked by his father Bindusara. Ashoka wanted to become king and so he got rid of the heir by tricking him into entering a pit filled with live coals. He became famous as “Ashoka the Fierce” because of his wicked nature and bad temper. He is said to have subjected his ministers to a test of loyalty and then have 500 of them killed for failing it. He is said to have burnt his entire harem to death when certain women insulted him. He is supposed to have derived sadistic pleasure from watching other people suffer. And for this he built himself an elaborate and horrific torture chamber where he amused himself by torturing other people. The story then goes on to narrate how it was only after an encounter with a pious Buddhist monk that Ashoka himself transformed into “Ashoka the pious”. A Chinese traveler who visited India in the 7th century CE, XuanZang recorded in his memoirs that he visited the place where the supposed torture chamber stood.

3) Another story is about events that occurred towards the end of Ashoka’s time on earth. Ashoka is said to have started gifting away the contents of his treasury to the Buddhist sangha. His ministers however were scared that his eccentricity would be the downfall of the empire and so denied him access to the treasury. As a result, Ashoka started giving away his personal possessions and was eventually left with nothing and so died peacefully.

At this point it is important to note that the Ashokavadana being a Buddhist text in itself sought to gain new converts for Buddhism and so used all these legends. Devotion to the Buddha and loyalty to the sangha are stressed. Such texts added to the perception that Ashoka was essentially the ideal Buddhist monarch who deserved both admiration and emulation.[55]

Ashoka and the relics of the Buddha According to Buddhist legend, particularly the Mahaparinirvana, the relics of the Buddha had been shared among eight countries following his death.[56] Ashoka endeavoured to take back the relics and share them among 84.000 stupas. This story is amply depicted in the reliefs of Sanchi and Bharhut.[57] According to the legend, Ashoka obtain the ashes from seven of countries, but failed to take the ashes from the Nagas at Ramagrama, who were able to keep them. This scene is depicted on the tranversal portion of the southern gateway at Sanchi.

King Ashoka visits Ramagrama, to take relics of the Buddha from the Nagas, but in vain. Southern gateway, Stupa 1, Sanchi. Contributions Approach towards religions According to Indian historian Romila Thapar, Ashoka emphasized respect for all religious teachers, and harmonious relationship between parents and children, teachers and pupils, and employers and employees.[58] Ashoka's religion contained gleanings from all religions.[citation needed] He emphasized the virtues of Ahimsa, respect to all religious teachers, equal respect for and study of each other's scriptures, and rational faith.[citation needed]

Global spread of Buddhism

Stupa of Sanchi. The central stupa was built during the Mauryas, and enlarged during the Sungas, but the decorative gateway is dated to the later dynasty of the Satavahanas. As a Buddhist emperor, Ashoka believed that Buddhism is beneficial for all human beings as well as animals and plants, so he built a number of stupas, Sangharama, viharas, chaitya, and residences for Buddhist monks all over South Asia and Central Asia. According to the Ashokavadana, he ordered the construction of 84,000 stupas to house the Buddha's relics.[59] In the Aryamanjusrimulakalpa, Ashoka takes offerings to each of these stupas traveling in a chariot adorned with precious metals.[60] He gave donations to viharas and mathas. He sent his only daughter Sanghamitra and son Mahindra to spread Buddhism in Sri Lanka (then known as Tamraparni). Ashoka also sent many prominent Buddhist monks (bhikshus) like Madhyamik Sthavira to modern Kashmir and Afghanistan; Maharaskshit Sthavira to Syria, Persia / Iran, Egypt, Greece, Italy and Turkey; Massim Sthavira to Nepal, Bhutan, China and Mongolia; Sohn Uttar Sthavira to modern Cambodia, Laos, Burma (old name Suvarnabhumi for Burma and Thailand), Thailand and Vietnam; Mahadhhamarakhhita Sthavira to Maharashtra (old name Maharatthha); Maharakhhit Sthavira and Yavandhammarakhhita Sthavira to South India.[citation needed]

Geographical distribution of known capitals of the Pillars of Ashoka. These are all thought to have been commissioned by Ashoka. Ashoka also invited Buddhists and non-Buddhists for religious conferences. He inspired the Buddhist monks to compose the sacred religious texts, and also gave all types of help to that end. Ashoka also helped to develop viharas (intellectual hubs) such as Nalanda and Taxila. Ashoka helped to construct Sanchi and Mahabodhi Temple. Ashoka also gave donations to non-Buddhists. As his reign continued his even-handedness was replaced with special inclination towards Buddhism.[61] Ashoka helped and respected both Shramanas (Buddhists monks) and Brahmins (Vedic monks). Ashoka also helped to organise the Third Buddhist council (c. 250 BCE) at Pataliputra (today's Patna). It was conducted by the monk Moggaliputta-Tissa who was the spiritual teacher of Ashoka.[citation needed]

Emperor Ashoka's son, Mahinda, also helped with the spread of Buddhism by translating the Buddhist Canon into a language that could be understood by the people of Sri Lanka.[62]

It is well known that Ashoka sent dütas or emissaries to convey messages or letters, written or oral (rather both), to various people. The VIth Rock Edict about "oral orders" reveals this. It was later confirmed that it was not unusual to add oral messages to written ones, and the content of Ashoka's messages can be inferred likewise from the XIIIth Rock Edict: They were meant to spread his dhammavijaya, which he considered the highest victory and which he wished to propagate everywhere (including far beyond India). There is obvious and undeniable trace of cultural contact through the adoption of the Kharosthi script, and the idea of installing inscriptions might have travelled with this script, as Achaemenid influence is seen in some of the formulations used by Ashoka in his inscriptions. This indicates to us that Ashoka was indeed in contact with other cultures, and was an active part in mingling and spreading new cultural ideas beyond his own immediate walls.[63]

Hellenistic world

Distribution of the Edicts of Ashoka, and location of the contemporary Greek city of Ai-Khanoum.[64]

Buddhist proselytism at the time of king Ashoka (260–218 BCE). In his edicts, Ashoka mentions some of the people living in Hellenic countries as converts to Buddhism and recipients of his envoys, although no Hellenic historical record of this event remains:

Now it is conquest by Dhamma that Beloved-of-the-Gods considers to be the best conquest. And it (conquest by Dhamma) has been won here, on the borders, even six hundred yojanas away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni. Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamktis, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dhamma. Even where Beloved-of-the-Gods' envoys have not been, these people too, having heard of the practice of Dhamma and the ordinances and instructions in Dhamma given by Beloved-of-the-Gods, are following it and will continue to do so.

— Edicts of Ashoka, Rock Edict (S. Dhammika)[65] It is not too far-fetched to imagine, however, that Ashoka received letters from Greek rulers and was acquainted with the Hellenistic royal orders in the same way as he perhaps knew of the inscriptions of the Achaemenid kings, given the presence of ambassadors of Hellenistic kings in India (as well as the dütas sent by Ashoka himself).[63] Dionysius is reported to have been such a Greek ambassador at the court of Ashoka, sent by Ptolemy II Philadelphus,[66] who himself is mentionned in the Edicts of Ashoka as a recipient of the Buddhist proselytism of Ashoka. Some Hellenistic philosophers, such as Hegesias of Cyrene, who probably lived under the rule of King Magas, one of the supposed recipients of Buddhist emissaries from Asoka, are sometimes thought to have been influenced by Buddhist teachings.[67]

The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita, are described in Pali sources as leading Greek (Yona) Buddhist monks, active in spreading Buddhism (the Mahavamsa, XII[68]).

Some Greeks (Yavana) may have played an administrative role in the territories ruled by Ashoka. The Girnar inscription of Rudradaman records that during the rule of Ashoka, a Yavana Governor was in charge in the area of Girnar, Gujarat, mentionning his role in the construction of a water reservoir.[69][70]

As administrator

Mauryan ringstone, with standing goddess. Northwest Pakistan. 3rd century BCE. British Museum. Ashoka's military power was strong, but after his conversion to Buddhism, he maintained friendly relations with three major Tamil kingdoms in the South--namely, Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas--the post-Alexandrian empire, Tamraparni, and Suvarnabhumi. His edicts state that he made provisions for medical treatment of humans and animals in his own kingdom as well as in these neighbouring states. He also had wells dug and trees planted along the roads for the benefit of the common people.[51]

Animal welfare Ashoka's rock edicts declare that injuring living things is not good, and no animal should be sacrificed for slaughter.[71] However, he did not prohibit common cattle slaughter or beef eating.[72]

He imposed a ban on killing of "all four-footed creatures that are neither useful nor edible", and of specific animal species including several birds, certain types of fish and bulls among others. He also banned killing of female goats, sheep and pigs that were nursing their young; as well as their young up to the age of six months. He also banned killing of all fish and castration of animals during certain periods such as Chaturmasa and Uposatha.[73][74]

Ashoka also abolished the royal hunting of animals and restricted the slaying of animals for food in the royal residence.[75] Because he banned hunting, created many veterinary clinics and eliminated meat eating on many holidays, the Mauryan Empire under Ashoka has been described as "one of the very few instances in world history of a government treating its animals as citizens who are as deserving of its protection as the human residents".[76]

Ashoka Chakra Main article: Ashoka Chakra

The Ashoka Chakra, "the wheel of Righteousness" (Dharma in Sanskrit or Dhamma in Pali)" The Ashoka Chakra (the wheel of Ashoka) is a depiction of the Dharmachakra (the Wheel of Dharma). The wheel has 24 spokes which represent the 12 Laws of Dependent Origination and the 12 Laws of Dependent Termination. The Ashoka Chakra has been widely inscribed on many relics of the Mauryan Emperor, most prominent among which is the Lion Capital of Sarnath and The Ashoka Pillar. The most visible use of the Ashoka Chakra today is at the centre of the National flag of the Republic of India (adopted on 22 July 1947), where it is rendered in a Navy-blue color on a White background, by replacing the symbol of Charkha (Spinning wheel) of the pre-independence versions of the flag. The Ashoka Chakra can also been seen on the base of the Lion Capital of Ashoka which has been adopted as the National Emblem of India.[citation needed]

The Ashoka Chakra was created by Ashoka during his reign. Chakra is a Sanskrit word which also means "cycle" or "self-repeating process". The process it signifies is the cycle of time--as in how the world changes with time.[citation needed]

A few days before India became independent in August 1947, the specially-formed Constituent Assembly decided that the flag of India must be acceptable to all parties and communities.[77] A flag with three colours, Saffron, White and Green with the Ashoka Chakra was selected.[citation needed]

Stone architecture

The Pataliputra capital, a 3rd century BCE capital from the Mauryan palace in Pataliputra, displaying Hellenistic designs.

Rampurva bull capital, detail of the abacus, with two "flame palmettes" framing a lotus surrounded by small rosette flowers. Ashoka is often credited with the beginning of stone architecture in India, possibly following the introduction of stone-building techniques by the Greeks after Alexander the Great.[78] Before Ashoka's time, buildings were probably built in non-permanent material, such as wood, bamboo or thatch.[78][79] Ashoka may have rebuilt his palace in Pataliputra by replacing wooden material by stone,[80] and may also have used the help of foreign craftmen.[81] Ashoka also innovated by using the permament qualities of stone for his written edicts, as well as his pillars with Buddhist symbolism.

Pillars of Ashoka (Ashokstambha) Main article: Pillars of Ashoka

The Ashokan pillar at Lumbini, Nepal, Buddha's birthplace The pillars of Ashoka are a series of columns dispersed throughout the northern Indian subcontinent, and erected by Ashoka during his reign in the 3rd century BCE. Originally, there must have been many pillars of Ashoka although only ten with inscriptions still survive. Averaging between forty and fifty feet in height, and weighing up to fifty tons each, all the pillars were quarried at Chunar, just south of Varanasi and dragged, sometimes hundreds of miles, to where they were erected. The first Pillar of Ashoka was found in the 16th century by Thomas Coryat in the ruins of ancient Delhi. The wheel represents the sun time and Buddhist law, while the swastika stands for the cosmic dance around a fixed center and guards against evil.[citation needed]

Lion Capital of Ashoka (Ashokmudra) Main article: Lion Capital of Ashoka

The Lion Capital of Ashoka. The Lion capital of Ashoka is a sculpture of four lions standing back to back. It was originally placed atop the Ashoka pillar at Sarnath, now in the state of Uttar Pradesh, India. The pillar, sometimes called the Ashoka Column, is still in its original location, but the Lion Capital is now in the Sarnath Museum. This Lion Capital of Ashoka from Sarnath has been adopted as the National Emblem of India and the wheel ("Ashoka Chakra") from its base was placed onto the center of the National Flag of India.[citation needed]

The capital contains four lions (Indian / Asiatic Lions), standing back to back, mounted on a short cylindrical abacus, with a frieze carrying sculptures in high relief of an elephant, a galloping horse, a bull, and a lion, separated by intervening spoked chariot-wheels over a bell-shaped lotus. Carved out of a single block of polished sandstone, the capital was believed to be crowned by a 'Wheel of Dharma' (Dharmachakra popularly known in India as the "Ashoka Chakra"). The Sarnath pillar bears one of the Edicts of Ashoka, an inscription against division within the Buddhist community, which reads, "No one shall cause division in the order of monks."[citation needed]

The four animals in the Sarnath capital are believed to symbolise different steps of Lord Buddha's life.[citation needed]

The Elephant represents the Buddha's idea in reference to the dream of Queen Maya of a white elephant entering her womb. The Bull represents desire during the life of the Buddha as a prince. The Horse represents Buddha's departure from palatial life. The Lion represents the accomplishment of Buddha. Besides the religious interpretations, there are some non-religious interpretations also about the symbolism of the Ashoka capital pillar at Sarnath. According to them, the four lions symbolise Ashoka's rule over the four directions, the wheels as symbols of his enlightened rule (Chakravartin) and the four animals as symbols of four adjoining territories of India.[citation needed]

Constructions credited to Ashoka

Illustration of the original temple built by Asoka at Bodh-Gaya on the location of the Mahabodhi Temple, sculpture of the Satavahana period at Sanchi, 1st century CE. The British restoration was done under guidance from Weligama Sri Sumangala.[82]

Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, India Dhamek Stupa, Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India Mahabodhi Temple, Bihar, India Barabar Caves, Bihar, India Nalanda Mahavihara (some portions like Sariputta Stupa), Bihar, India Taxila University (some portions like Dharmarajika Stupa and Kunala Stupa), Taxila, Pakistan Bhir Mound (reconstructed), Taxila, Pakistan Bharhut stupa, Madhya Pradesh, India Deorkothar Stupa, Madhya Pradesh, India Butkara Stupa, Swat, Pakistan Sannati Stupa, Karnataka, India: the only known sculptural depiction of Ashoka[citation needed] Mir Rukun Stupa, Nawabshah, Pakistan In art, film and literature

A c. 1910 painting by Abanindranath Tagore (1871–1951) depicting Ashoka's queen standing in front of the railings of the Buddhist monument at Sanchi (Raisen district, Madhya Pradesh). Jaishankar Prasad composed Ashoka ki Chinta (Ashoka's Anxiety), a poem that portrays Ashoka’s feelings during the war on Kalinga. Ashok Kumar is a 1941 Tamil film directed by Raja Chandrasekhar. The film stars Chittor V. Nagaiah as Ashoka. Uttar-Priyadarshi (The Final Beatitude), a verse-play written by poet Agyeya depicting his redemption, was adapted to stage in 1996 by theatre director, Ratan Thiyam and has since been performed in many parts of the world.[83][84] In 1973, Amar Chitra Katha released a graphic novel based on the life of Ashoka. In Piers Anthony’s series of space opera novels, the main character mentions Ashoka as a model for administrators to strive for. Aśoka is a 2001 epic Indian historical drama film directed and co-written by Santosh Sivan. The film stars Shah Rukh Khan as Ashoka. In 2002, Mason Jennings released the song "Emperor Ashoka" on his Living in the Moment EP. It is based on the life of Ashoka. In 2013, Christopher C. Doyle released his debut novel, The Mahabharata Secret, in which he wrote about Ashoka hiding a dangerous secret for the well-being of India. 2014's The Emperor's Riddles, a fiction mystery thriller novel by Satyarth Nayak, traces the evolution of Ashoka and his esoteric legend of the Nine Unknown Men. In 2015, Chakravartin Ashoka Samrat, a television serial by Ashok Banker, based on the life of Ashoka, began airing on Colors TV. The Legend of Kunal is an upcoming film based on the life of Kunal, the son of Ashoka. The movie will be directed by Chandraprakash Dwivedi. The role of Ashoka is to be played by Amitabh Bachchan, and the role of Kunal is played by Arjun Rampal.[85] Bharatvarsh (TV Series) is an Indian television historical documentary series, hosted by actor-director Anupam Kher on Hindi news channel ABP News.[86] The series stars Aham Sharma as Ashoka. See also Flag of India.svgIndia portal Dharma Wheel.svgBuddhism portal P history.svgHistory portal P vip.svgBiography portal Arthashastra Ashoka's policy of Dhamma References Citations Jump up ^ Lars Fogelin (1 April 2015). An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism. Oxford University Press. pp. 81–. ISBN 978-0-19-994823-9. Jump up ^ Fred Kleiner (1 January 2015). Gardner’s Art through the Ages: A Global History. Cengage Learning. pp. 474–. ISBN 978-1-305-54484-0. Jump up ^ Lahiri 2015, pp. 295–296. ^ Jump up to: a b c Upinder Singh 2008, p. 331. Jump up ^ Chandra, Amulya (2015-05-14). "Ashoka | biography - emperor of India". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2015-08-09. Jump up ^ Thapur (1973), p. 51. ^ Jump up to: a b Constance Jones; James D. Ryan (2006). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Infobase Publishing. p. xxviii. ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5. ^ Jump up to: a b Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 44. Jump up ^ Kalinga had been conquered by the preceding Nanda Dynasty but subsequently broke free until it was reconquered by Ashoka c. 260 BCE. (Raychaudhuri, H. C.; Mukherjee, B. N. 1996. Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty. Oxford University Press, pp. 204-9, pp. 270-71) Jump up ^ Mookerji 1995, p. 60. Jump up ^ Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 45. Jump up ^ Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times, New York, Oxford University Press, 1993, p. 46. Jump up ^ John S. Strong, The Legend of King Ashoka (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2014), 17. Jump up ^ Chandragupta Maurya, EMPEROR OF INDIA, Encyclopaedia Britannica Jump up ^ Hermann Kulke; Dietmar Rothermund (2004). A History of India. Routledge. pp. 63–65. ISBN 978-0-415-32920-0. Jump up ^ Roger Boesche (2003). The First Great Political Realist: Kautilya and His Arthashastra. Lexington Books. pp. 7–18. ISBN 978-0-7391-0607-5. Jump up ^ The Early State, H. J. M. Claessen, Peter Skalník, Walter de Gruyter, 1978 [1] Jump up ^ A Brief History of India, Alain Daniélou, Inner Traditions / Bear & Co, 2003, p.86-87 [2] Jump up ^ Foreign Influence on Ancient India, Krishna Chandra Sagar, Northern Book Centre, 1992, p.83 ^ Jump up to: a b Upinder Singh 2008, p. 332. ^ Jump up to: a b c John S. Strong (1989). The Legend of King Aśoka: A Study and Translation of the Aśokāvadāna. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 232. ISBN 978-81-208-0616-0. Retrieved 30 October 2012. Jump up ^ K. T. S. Sarao (2007). A text book of the history of Theravāda Buddhism (2 ed.). Department of Buddhist Studies, University of Delhi. p. 89. ISBN 978-81-86700-66-2. ^ Jump up to: a b Upinder Singh 2008, p. 333. Jump up ^ Ayyar 1987, p. 25. Jump up ^ Gyan Swarup Gupta (1 January 1999). India: From Indus Valley Civilisation to Mauryas. Concept Publishing Company. pp. 268–. ISBN 978-81-7022-763-2. Retrieved 30 October 2012. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Pradip Bhattacharya (2002). "The Unknown Ashoka". Boloji.com. Retrieved 30 November 2012. Jump up ^ Charles Drekmeier (1962). Kingship and Community in Early India. Stanford University Press. pp. 173–. ISBN 978-0-8047-0114-3. Retrieved 30 October 2012. Jump up ^ "The Truth of Babri Mosque". Retrieved 14 March 2015. Jump up ^ prachin bharater itihas by sunil chattopadhyay ^ Jump up to: a b Mookerji 1995, p. 9. Jump up ^ Smith, Vincent A. (1901). Asoka - the Buddhist Emperor of India. Rulers of India series. Oxford at the Clarendon Press. p. 130. Jump up ^ Basham, A. L. (1954). The Wonder that was India: A Survey of the History and Culture of the Indian Sub-continent Before the Coming of the Muslims. London: Sidgwick and Jackson. p. 56. OCLC 181731857. Jump up ^ Buckley, Edmund. Universal Religion. Chicago: The University Association. pp. 272–. ISBN 978-1-4400-8300-6. Jump up ^ "Ashoka's son took Buddhism outside India". The Times of India. Jump up ^ Kosmin 2014, p. 36. Jump up ^ Strong, John (2007). Relics of the Buddha. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 149. ISBN 978-81-208-3139-1. Jump up ^ Mookerji 1988, p. 82. Jump up ^ "Clues to undiscovered Ashoka inscriptions". Jump up ^ Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam, Arun Tiwari. Guiding souls: dialogues on the purpose of life. Ocean Books. p. 47. Jump up ^ Vesselin Popovski, Gregory M. Reichberg, and Nicholas Turner, World Religions and Norms of War (Tokyo: United Nations University Press, 2009), 66. ^ Jump up to: a b c Beni Madhab Barua (5 May 2010). The Ajivikas. General Books. pp. 68–69. ISBN 978-1-152-74433-2. Retrieved 30 October 2012. Jump up ^ Steven L. Danver (22 December 2010). Popular Controversies in World History: Investigating History's Intriguing Questions: Investigating History's Intriguing Questions. ABC-CLIO. p. 99. ISBN 978-1-59884-078-0. Retrieved 23 May 2013. Jump up ^ Le Phuoc (March 2010). Buddhist Architecture. Grafikol. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-9844043-0-8. Retrieved 23 May 2013. Jump up ^ Upinder Singh (2012). "Governing the State and the Self: Political Philosophy and Practice in the Edicts of As´oka". South Asian Studies. Routledge (28.2). Jump up ^ Mitchiner, Michael (1978). Oriental Coins & Their Values: The Ancient and Classical World 600 B.C. - A.D. 650. Hawkins Publications. p. 544. ISBN 978-0-9041731-6-1. Jump up ^ Indian Numismatics, Damodar Dharmanand Kosambi, Orient Blackswan, 1981, p.73 [3] Jump up ^ Malwa Through the Ages, from the Earliest Times to 1305 A.D, Kailash Chand Jain, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1972, p.134 [4] ^ Jump up to: a b Thappar, Romila (7–13 November 2009). "Ashoka - A Persepective". Economic and Political Weekly. 44 (45): 31–37. Jump up ^ Sen, Amartya (Summer 1998). "Universal Truths and the Westernizing Illusion". Harvard International Review. 20 (3): 40–43. Jump up ^ Richard Robinson, Willard Johnson, and Thanissaro Bhikkhu, Buddhist Religions, fifth ed., Wadsworth 2005, page 59. ^ Jump up to: a b The Edicts of King Ashoka Archived 28 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine., English translation (1993) by Ven. S. Dhammika. ISBN 955-24-0104-6. Retrieved on: 21 February 2009 Jump up ^ Upinder Singh (2012). "Governing the State and the Self: Political Philosophy and Practice in the Edicts of As´oka". South Asian Studies. Routledge (28.2): 131–132. Jump up ^ Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India. Jump up ^ Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Medieval India. Jump up ^ Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India, Power and Piety: The Maurya Empire, c. 324-187 BCE Jump up ^ Asoka and the Buddha-Relics, T.W. Rhys Davids, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1901, pp. 397-410 [5] Jump up ^ Asiatic Mythology by J. Hackin p.84 Jump up ^ Microsoft Encarta Article on Ashoka Jump up ^ Strong, John (2007). Relics of the Buddha. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. pp. 136–137. ISBN 978-81-208-3139-1. Jump up ^ Strong, John (2007). Relics of the Buddha. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 145. ISBN 978-81-208-3139-1. Jump up ^ N.V. Isaeva, Shankara and Indian philosophy. SUNY Press, 1993, page 24. Jump up ^ Kate Crosby, Wiley-Blackwell Guides to Buddhism: Theravada Buddhism: Continuity, Diversity, and Identity (Somerset: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013), 84. ^ Jump up to: a b Oskar von Hinüber (2010). "Did Hellenistic Kings Send Letters to Aśoka?". Journal of the American Oriental Society. Freiburg (130.2): 262–265. Jump up ^ Reference: "India: The Ancient Past" p.113, Burjor Avari, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-35615-6 Jump up ^ The Edicts of King Ashoka: an English rendering by Ven. S. Dhammika. Access to Insight: Readings in Theravāda Buddhism. Last accessed 1 September 2011. Jump up ^ Pliny the Elder, "The Natural History", 6, 21 Jump up ^ Historical Dictionary of Ancient Greek Philosophy, Anthony Preus, Rowman & Littlefield, 2015, p.184 Jump up ^ Full text of the Mahavamsa Click chapter XII Jump up ^ Foreign Influence on Ancient India by Krishna Chandra Sagar p.138 Jump up ^ The Idea of Ancient India: Essays on Religion, Politics, and Archaeology by Upinder Singh p.18 Jump up ^ Fitzgerald 2004, p. 120. Jump up ^ Simoons, Frederick J. (1994). Eat Not This Flesh: Food Avoidances from Prehistory to the Present (2nd ed.). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-299-14254-4. Jump up ^ "The Edicts of King Asoka". Translated by Ven. S. Dhammika. Buddhist Publication Society. 1994. Jump up ^ D.R. Bhandarkar, R. G. Bhandarkar (2000). Asoka. Asian Educational Services. pp. 314–315. Jump up ^ Gerald Irving A. Dare Draper; Michael A. Meyer; H. McCoubrey (1998). Reflections on Law and Armed Conflicts: The Selected Works on the Laws of War by the Late Professor Colonel G.I.A.D. Draper, Obe. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 44. ISBN 978-90-411-0557-8. Retrieved 30 October 2012. Jump up ^ Phelps, Norm (2007). The Longest Struggle: Animal Advocacy from Pythagoras to Peta. Lantern Books. ISBN 1590561066. Jump up ^ Heimer, Željko (2 July 2006). "India". Flags of the World. Archived from the original on 18 October 2006. Retrieved 11 October 2006. ^ Jump up to: a b Introduction to Indian Architecture Bindia Thapar, Tuttle Publishing, 2012, p.21 "Ashoka used the knowledge of stone craft to begin the tradition of stone architecture in India, dedicated to Buddhism." Jump up ^ Gardner's Art through the Ages: Non-Western Perspectives, Fred S. Kleiner, Cengage Learning, 2009, p14 Jump up ^ Mookerji 1995, p. 96. Jump up ^ "Ashoka was known to be a great builder who may have even imported craftsmen from abroad to build royal monuments." Monuments, Power and Poverty in India: From Ashoka to the Raj, A. S. Bhalla, I.B.Tauris, 2015 p.18 [6] Jump up ^ Goonatilake, Hema (30 May 2010). "Edwin Arnold and the Sri Lanka connection". The Sunday Times. Colombo. Jump up ^ Jefferson, Margo (27 October 2000). "Next Wave Festival Review; In Stirring Ritual Steps, Past and Present Unfold". The New York Times. Jump up ^ Renouf, Renee (December 2000). "Review: Uttarpriyadarshi". Balletco. Archived from the original on 5 February 2012. Jump up ^ "The Legend Of Kunal". filmifeat.com. Retrieved 7 June 2016. Jump up ^ "'Bharatvarsh' – ABP News brings a captivating saga of legendary Indians with Anupam Kher". 19 August 2016. Sources Ahir, D. C. (1995). Aśoka the Great. Delhi: B. R. Publishing. Allen, Charles (2012), Ashoka: The Search for India's Lost Emperor, Hachette, ISBN 978-1-408-70388-5 Ayyar, Sulochana, Costumes and Ornaments as Depicted in the Sculptures of Gwalior Museum, Delhi: Mittal Publications, ISBN 81-7099-002-5 Bhandarkar, D.R. (1969). Aśoka (4th ed.). Calcutta: Calcutta University Press. Bongard-Levin, G. M. Mauryan India (Stosius Inc/Advent Books Division May 1986) ISBN 0-86590-826-5 Chauhan, Gian Chand (2004). Origin and Growth of Feudalism in Early India: From the Mauryas to AD 650. Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi. ISBN 978-81-215-1028-8 Durant, Will (1935). Our Oriental Heritage. New York: Simon and Schuster. Falk, Harry. Aśokan Sites and Artefacts – A Source-book with Bibliography (Mainz : Philipp von Zabern, [2006]) ISBN 978-3-8053-3712-0 Fitzgerald, James L., ed. (2004), The Mahabharata, 7, The University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-25250-7 Gokhale, Balkrishna Govind (1996). Aśoka Maurya (Twayne Publishers) ISBN 978-0-8290-1735-9 Hultzsch, Eugene (October 1914). "The Date of Asoka". The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Cambridge University Press: 943–951. JSTOR 25189238. Li Rongxi, trans. (1993). The biographical scripture of King Aśoka / transl. from the Chinese of Saṃghapāla, Berkeley, CA: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, ISBN 0-9625618-4-3. Kosmin, Paul J. (2014), The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in Seleucid Empire, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-72882-0 Mookerji, Radha Kumud (1988) [first published in 1966], Chandragupta Maurya and his times (4th ed.), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0433-3 Mookerji, Radhakumud (1928). Asoka (Gaekwad lectures). MacMillan. Nikam, N. A.; McKeon, Richard (1959). The Edicts of Aśoka. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (1967). Age of the Nandas and Mauryas. Reprint: 1996, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi. ISBN 978-81-208-0466-1 Seneviratna, Anuradha (ed.), Gombrich, Richard; Guruge, Ananda (1994). King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary studies, Kandy: Sri Lanka; Buddhist Publication Society, 1st edition, ISBN 9552400651 Singh, Upinder (2008). A history of ancient and early medieval India : from the Stone Age to the 12th century. New Delhi: Pearson Education. ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0. Mookerji, Radhakumud (1995) [1962]. Aśoka (3rd Revised ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81208-058-28. Singh, Upinder (2012). "Governing the State and the Self: Political Philosophy and Practice in the Edicts of Aśoka". South Asian Studies. University of Delh. 28 (2): 131–145. doi:10.1080/02666030.2012.725581. Swearer, Donald. Buddhism and Society in Southeast Asia (Chambersburg, Pennsylvania: Anima Books, 1981) ISBN 0-89012-023-4 Thapar, Romila. (1973). Aśoka and the decline of the Mauryas. 2nd Edition. Oxford University Press, Reprint, 1980. SBN 19-660379 6. von Hinüber, Oskar. (2010). "Did Hellenistic Kings Send Letters to Aśoka?" Journal of the American Oriental Society, 130:2 (Freiburg: 2010), pp. 261–266. MacPhail, James Merry: "Aśoka", Calcutta: The Associative Press ; London: Oxford University Press 1918 PDF (5.9 MB) Rice, B. Lewis (1889), Inscriptions at Sravana Belgola : a chief seat of the Jains, Bangalore: Mysore Govt. Central Press Lahiri, Nayanjot (2015). Ashoka in Ancient India. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674057777. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ashoka. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Ashoka Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Asoka. Ashoka at DMOZ BBC Radio 4: Sunil Khilnani, Incarnations: Ashoka. BBC Radio 4: Melvyn Bragg with Richard Gombrich et al., In Our Time, Ashoka the Great. Hultzsch, E. (1925). Inscriptions of Asoka: New Edition. Oxford: Government of India. Ashoka Mauryan dynasty Died: 232 BCE Preceded by Bindusara	Mauryan Emperor 272–232 BCE	Succeeded by Dasharatha [show] v t e Buddhism topics Authority control WorldCat Identities VIAF: 300985478 LCCN: n50002053 ISNI: 0000 0001 1477 1875 GND: 118504703 SUDOC: 029935318 BNF: cb12145542z (data) Categories: 3rd-century BC Indian monarchsAncient history of AfghanistanAncient history of PakistanBuddhist monarchsBuddhist pacifistsConverts to BuddhismIndian Buddhist missionariesIndian pacifistsIndian Theravada BuddhistsPeople from Patna232 BC deathsAshokaIndian Buddhists Navigation menu Sashi06 Alerts (0) Notice (1) TalkSandboxPreferencesBetaWatchlistContributionsLog outArticleTalkReadView sourceView historyWatchSearch

Search Wikipedia Go Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages Адыгэбзэ Afrikaans Alemannisch አማርኛ العربية Aragonés অসমীয়া Azərbaycanca বাংলা Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎ भोजपुरी Български Boarisch Bosanski Brezhoneg Буряад Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Fiji Hindi Føroyskt Français Galego ગુજરાતી गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ilokano বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული कॉशुर / کٲشُر Қазақша Kiswahili Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar मैथिली Malagasy മലയാളം मराठी მარგალური مازِرونی Bahasa Melayu မြန်မာဘာသာ Nederlands नेपाली नेपाल भाषा 日本語 Нохчийн Norsk Norsk nynorsk Occitan ଓଡ଼ିଆ Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча ਪੰਜਾਬੀ پنجابی پښتو Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русиньскый Русский Саха тыла संस्कृतम् Scots Shqip සිංහල Simple English سنڌي Slovenčina Slovenščina کوردی Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча/tatarça తెలుగు ไทย Тоҷикӣ Türkçe Українська اردو Vahcuengh Tiếng Việt 文言 Winaray ייִדיש 粵語 Žemaitėška 中文