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Anime, America, and Japan.
Here is an essay written a little while ago, concerning Anime and its possible future in America. One could easily argue the artistic value behind the visual art known as anime

Introduction

 * Anime, or Japanese Animation, can be described in many ways; as an art, as a means to a message, or just plain trash. Americans especially have a hard time comprehending the “cartoons” that are not “just for kids.” Anime is a direct mirror of Japanese culture, and sometimes vice versa, which is an important issue to look at when analyzing anime and its effect in Japan and, more recently, in America. The future of anime is in its appeal to American audiences. The main topics that will be explained are the effects of Japanese culture on anime, anime and America, and the potential future of Anime.


 * Although Japanese culture has had its influence on Anime, the first creator of anime and manga was inspired, ironically, by an American. Osama Tezuka, who is credited with creating one of the first influential animes, Astroboy (Testuwan Atom, 1963), was inspired by Walt Disney. It is not a coincidence that the big eyes and somewhat cartoon-like character designs that are found in Bambi are seen in much of Tezuka’s works, as is the rise of the Japanese Animation industry being almost parallel to the rise of Tezuka. With the determined drive of Tezuka’s, “[Japanese] animation was fluid enough for T.V. audiences, with movie like plots and methods of direction previously reserved only for live action films, such as attention to lighting and using close-ups for dramatic effect.” ¹ Many compare Tezuka to Walt Disney. The key difference between the two is the fact that, while Mickey Mouse never really had a consistent character or role, “Astroboy was about social change in Japan, and the future of technology as we view it.” ¹ Astroboy, the main character to Osama’s anime, was a friendly, good robot who was powered by atomic energy. This embraces the use of atomic energy as something good, not something that was used to destroy Hiroshima and Nagasaki.¹ Tezuka died in 1989.

Anime: a Mirror of Japanese Culture

 * Anime is influenced heavily by Japanese culture, and as a result, watching certain animes can mirror the everyday life of a Japanese male/female. Examples would include the uniformity of the school system, as seen in almost every anime dealing with pre-teens, or the Shinto rituals that occasionally come up in anime. For example, in many romance dramas or romance comedies, the ritual in which one makes a wish on New Years often plays into the main characters love life.


 * The protagonist is often male, mainly because males have traditionally played a larger part in Japanese society. He is often quite introverted. Japanese males, specifically those that are teens or preteens, tend to be very repressed by society. Much more than males in other cultures, which may be one of the reasons enjo kousai (paid dating) came to be. 2 Because the Japanese have always been far more open about nudity and sex, compared to the West, they tend to treat it more light hearted and often times humorous. Thus the creation of the Romance Comedy. Animes of this genre include Oh My Goddess!, whose protagonist Keiichi can’t get a girl because he’s short, Love Hina, whose protagonist Keitaro has never had a girlfriend, and Video Girl Ai, whose protagonist is a boy nicknamed “dateless.” In all three of these animes, the characters are suddenly thrust into circumstances where they are around a girl that they have never met before, which brings up a common theme that love is something that is developed over time; a very optimistic view.


 * Women in anime are often times treated quite poorly. Historically, women in Japan have been submissive while males have been dominant. Even in modern day Japan, women are still discriminated against. Japanese women are the first to be fired and the last to be hired.2 The traditional female is depicted as subservient, and in anime, women often are. Lately, however, the stereotypes are slowly fading and sometimes reversed, with the gaining popularity of Bishojo (called shojo for short), or women’s manga. It would be akin to how a lot of women, of various cultures, read romance novels. Bishojo is drawn, often for younger audiences, to target the female demographic.


 * Samurai, one of the more unique and influential groups of Japanese history, have influenced many animes. Rorouni Kenshin Wandering Samurai and Samurai X are two animes that play out like a Kurosawa film, and often deal with trust, loyalty, and brotherhood. Themes that are fluent throughout Samurai thought. Some Samurai animes have even incorporated a certain amount of mysticism; examples include Ninja Scroll and Ninja Resurrection. Ninja Resurrection is a Samurai anime that has many legendary samurai, such as Miyamoto Musashi, coming back from the dead and raising the devil to kill all of the inhabitants of Japan. One would expect that legendary samurai, who are often glamorized in books, would be portrayed as good. After considering the relatively recent way Japan views Samurai –which is trying to break off from the heavily Samurai influenced Japan – Ninja Resurrection actually makes a lot of sense. On the other hand, Ninja Scroll tends to glamorize its stoic samurai, Jubei, who must kill the eight demons of Kimon.


 * Animes such as Ninja Resurrection and Ninja Scroll are not the only animes to incorporate mysticism into their theme. In fact, most anime does this to a certain degree. Japanese society, which is heavily founded on the ideas of Shinto, deals with kami, or (loosely translated) spirits, in a very calm, understanding way. Japanese society has traditionally not had a clear, set heaven and hell, but rather two planes of existence; those of the living and those of the kami. In the majority of anime this is shown because there never is a real antagonist, in the Western sense. Often times, the antagonists are not naturally evil (which brings up another of Japans traditional ideas, that humans are not naturally evil) and are often times fighting for the opposite side because they were manipulated by a higher power or because they were led astray. A great example is the anime X, (which came from the manga X/1999). The premise of the story is that there are two sides: Dragons of Heaven and Dragons of Earth. The assumed protagonist, Kamui, decides to fight for the Dragon of the Heaven. This automatically places his ‘twin star,’ Futaro, on the other side, and from the beginning, an epic fatalistic battle is set. Both sides are developed in a way that neither is necessarily good or evil. The Dragon of Heaven is fighting to save mankind, and the Dragon of Earth is fighting for the salvation of the environment and nature. This idea of man versus nature is a common theme in anime, but this will be discussed later.


 * Ki, the equivalent to the Chinese concept of Chi, is incorporated into many animes involving fighting or ESP. In Dragonball Z, Street Fighter 2V, DNA², and Yu Yu Hakusho, the fighters are able to collect ki into a ball of energy, which they use against their opponent. This idea is so often used that the anime does not even have to explain what it is, which is in part due, again, to the Japanese and their view of the supernatural.


 * The Japanese, being inertly superstitious, love ghost stories. So it should come as no surprise that the horror genre of anime became quite popular in Japan. One of the original titles of the genre was Vampire Hunter D, but since then, many other notable influential titles have been released. These include Wicked City, Biohunters, Twilight of the Dark Master, and Petshop of Horrors.

Analysis of Specific Animes

 * Neon Genesis Evangelion has a cult following, in Japan and America. The themes are abstractly developed and are layered in religious symbolism. The main theme seems to have much of its roots in Taoism- the Japanese version of course. The main character, Shinji, is immediately placed into a situation where he must defend mankind from an onslaught of “angels.” He pilots an Eva, which turns out to be a living entity, and he eventually is absorbed and he drifts into space after the destruction of the world, or “third impact.” Themes include the cynical idea that humans are faulted beings with natural gaps in the mind, and love is merely the filling of these gaps through non real pleasures. The main theme, which is debatable, is that the mind and body are similar only in the sense of being. When the mind, or soul, expands outside the body, one has complete control over every aspect of the self. The Buddhist and somewhat Taoist idea is that the world is merely a dream and that every material object is a mere interpretation by the mind. So, in Evangelion, Shinji’s mind is able to leave his body. Thus, because his body could no longer perceive the world, he stopped existing, but at the same time, his mind was able to create anything he wanted. A fair comparison to the way the mind and the world are related in Evangelion can be made with the body and the fake world in the American movie, the Matrix. A less complicated theme influenced by Japanese culture is the traditional relationship between Shinji and his late mother. When his mother was alive, Shinji and she were always together. In traditional Japanese culture, the woman raises the kids, while the father goes out and works.


 * Sakura Diaries depicts examination hell, and the hierarchy of education, quite accurately. Touma failed the exam to get into Keito U (University), and as a result is forced to go to cram school. He lies to a girl he likes by telling her he got accepted into Keito, because she was actually attending the school. Touma is afraid that if she knew he failed and was attending cram school, she would not like him. He makes friends with a third year ronin (drop out) at his cram school, who tells him straight out that he will not pass the entrance exams and he should learn to live in the ‘class’ of cram school students. Modern Japan still has a social hierarchy, but it is much more business and education related than warrior related. If one can get into a good college such as Tokyo U, his or her life is made from there on. Because of this, a huge amount of pressure is put on the young and sometimes they are even sent to schools completely devoted to teaching how to pass the entrance exams. In Sakura Diaries, it is made quite clear that cram school ronins are a very low class compared to those that graduate from Keito U or Tokyo U. Mirroring a Japanese students’ life, Touma is constantly stressed about getting into a good college.


 * More recent Japanese culture, which is influenced by American culture, has had its effects on anime. The highly acclaimed Cowboy Bebop is an anime that is, arguably, heavily influenced by Western culture. The name of each episode is the name of, or a play of words on, an American or Western thing. My Funny Valentine, Mushroom Samba, Heavy Metal Queen, Stray Dog Strut, Perriot Le Fou, and The Real Folk Blues – to name but a few. This anime is a great example of how Japanese pop culture takes American pop concepts and Japanizes them. In Cowboy Bebop, there are gunfights that play out like a high octane American action movie. Character relations are much more American than Japanese, and the characters themselves seem more American influenced then Japanese. For example Faye Valentine, the main female character, is the complete opposite of the Japanese stereotype. She goes off on her own, takes care of herself, can use weapons proficiently and is often times selfish and greedy. She is also a bit of a feminist, and views most men as slobs. Jet, Spike’s partner, stays on the ship and cooks food. At the same time, however, the main character Spike follows an unwritten code similar to Bushido. In the last episode, when Spike is going off on a suicide run to kill his rival, he tells his friend, “I’m not going there to die... I’m going there to see if I’m really alive.” To be struck down in combat, regardless of attaining ones goals, is an important ideal of the Samurai.


 * Cowboy Bebop took Western action movies and Japanized them, similar to the anime Noir. The American film, The Professional is about a girl (Natalie Portman) who works with a hitman (Jean Reno) to reap vengeance against a man who murdered her family. Since American movies are always popular in Japan, the Professional gained a huge amount of Japanese fans. So, an anime, Noir, was made. Noir stars a female assassin (the femme fatal of noir film) who is seeking vengeance against a man who killed her family when she was young. Just the title ‘Noir’ shows its American, or Western, roots (on a side note; Noir was originally a genre associated with such French films as Le Samourai), similar to how Cowboy Bebop associates with the music genre of bebop and the American concept of cowboys. Both animes show how Japanese pop culture tends to borrow from America.


 * Japanese History has had its influence on anime. There are numerous samurai and war propaganda anime. One of the more critically acclaimed, historically accurate war films is Grave of the Fireflies, which follows the life of two survivors of the fire bombing of Tokyo. Historically, Japanese Society has always seemed to be strict on rules, habits and etiquette. With this has come the repression of the Japanese, which one can argue is reflected into the extreme adult animes (called hentai or ecchi) and other adult entertainment of Japan. Anime has also provided a means of rewriting history or providing a different outlook on Japan. Jin-Roh: The Wolf Brigade  is an anime that bases its story on the idea that Japan was turned into a fascist, totalitarian state shortly after World War II. History shows that in the context of that time, this is not too farfetched an idea. After the surrender of Japan, radicals from both sides of the political spectrum attempted to make their mark. Wings of Honneamise provides a look at an alternate world, although coincidentally similar to that of Japans, in which the first manned space flight is assembled. The ironic aspect about this is that this was made after the first Americans walked on the moon, and in this anime, the Japanese are the first to make it into space. This shows the sometimes hidden desire of the Japanese to exceed America, especially in business and technology.


 * Anime can be used to convey social and political propaganda, but regardless, anime is still a form of art. And some animes take this to the more abstract form. Serial Experiment Lain competes with Evangelion in terms of depth and symbolism. It is an abstract tale of Lain and those around her, and their gradual change as the ‘wired’ (the equivalent to a Virtual Reality internet) and the real world become one and the same. Japanese themes can be seen. In the beginning, Lain is an anti-social individual but by the end, as Lain becomes one with the wired, (which represents fitting into society) she gradual gains respect and happiness. Also, the wired and the real world, which are eventually merged into one, represent man and technology. Japan has been accepting of technology since America gave Japan a small locomotive, and this is reflected into Serial Experiment Lain’s message that man and technology should work as one. A result of Japans interest in technology was the mecha genre (or giant robot genre). Shows such as Macross (“Robotech” in America) and Gundam have spawned a large amount of similar, if not related, shows.


 * The same people behind Serial Experiment Lain made another, less abstract but equally compelling anime called Boogiepop Phantom. Boogiepop Phantom addresses the darker, morbid issues of Modern Japanese society. In the episode “You’ll Never be Young Twice,” Saki loves to play the piano, but unfortunately she doesn’t make it into music school, and her parents want her to become a lawyer. Japanese Custom emphasizes filial piety, and some young Japanese do tend to become what their parents want them to be rather than what they want for themselves. In the end, Saki meets a young boy who offers her to be young again. Her parents find her dead, hunched over the piano. Unfortunately, many Japanese do commit suicide, arguably due to the pressures of society or their parents. In one another entitled “My Fair Lady”, Yoji, a boy obsessed with his Virtual Girl computer game meets a girl at his work whom he associates with the game. The girl in the game and the girl at his work are eventually merged into one, in his mind, and when his computer is broken, Yoji goes crazy. This shows, for better or worse, the popular Virtual Girl game that is in Japan. Such games as Tokimeki Memorial have Japanese males cheering for an anime character, maybe even more so than a real girl. This can also be seen in the movie Macoss Plus, where a pop singer, Sharon Apple, is created. Her appearance and her voice are all created by computers, yet people still love her and want to see her concerts.


 * A common theme that corresponds to Japanese culture would be Man vs. Nature. The Japanese, being of a Shinto origin, tend to believe in a harmony with nature. With the bringing of technology and cities, much of the natural wildlife that the Japanese once cherished is gone. In X, the Dragon of Heaven is defending mankind and the Dragon of Earth is defending nature, because evidently, the two cannot coexists with each other and survive. Kamui, the fighter for the Dragon of Heaven, beheaded his combatant, after which the movie ends quite abruptly. This is open for interpretation, but the ending marked the death of both sides. The Dragons of Earth destroyed all the seals that protected mankind (which was, coincidentally, placed in Tokyo, one of the most important parts of Japan) which the Dragons of Heaven defended, so man was doomed. However, Kamui defeated the Dragons of Earth so they were all dead too. Perhaps this represents the futility of worrying too much about either side of the issue (so much as to kill the other side), which seems very Taoist influenced. Taoists would most likely be more environmentalists, but at the same time, they would not advocate the killing of those that do destroy nature. On the other hand, such animes as Princess Mononoke and Laputa end with a theme that supports environmentalism. “In the most impressive, symbolic scene in Laputa, the floating magic castle city made of proud old stonework and ancient, deadly weapons crumbles, falling from its core, a majestic, giant, living tree, home to small creatures. The tree floats off, free, alive, and unhindered by its previous burden of human greed.” 3

Anime and the Future

 * In today’s world, America is a key figure for business. So of course, one of the most popular industries in Japan must try to sell in America. The future of anime is in the effects of, and the popularity; of anime in America. Luckily, the anime industry is gradually gaining more popularity within the American public.


 * Astroboy, which reached American audience and seemed to accompany the popular sushi bars at the time, (~1980’s) left critics with the impression that anime was for kids. Many critics would change their minds with the release of Akira, which gained a small cult following in America. Grave of the Fireflies gained tremendous acclaim from Roger Ebert. Ghost in the Shell received praise from various critics and directors, including James Cameron. For many Americans, having Cameron give praise to a ‘cartoon’ made them thing twice about the artistic value and cinematic value behind anime. The most recent animes that have been in theaters are Princess Mononoke, Metropolis and Spirited Away. While, for each one, there is a critic that says that this is the title that will finally bring anime mainstream, it has never happened.


 * The anime industry, aside from the films, is also releasing more manga (graphic novels) and anime into the United States. One of the more popular mangas, Ranma 1/2, and one of the more popular animes, Dragonball Z, started the trend. Some may argue opposite of this because animes such as Speed Racer and Robotech were around before Dragonball Z, but it was not until after Dragonball Z was released that the American market saw such an influx of anime that would have never been released before. The pokémon fad, which lasted some time in the late 1990’s, left Americans with a very negative look at anime. It was seen as childish, the equivalent to a flashy Saturday morning cartoon. With Pokémon came a horde of similar shows, such as; Yu Gi O!, Digimon and Card Captor Sakura - to name a few.


 * The main concern many American Otakus (die-hard anime fans) have is the fact that anime is not mainstream, and thus is hard to get or overpriced. Anime has been around in America for over twenty years, and the American public still has not grabbed onto it and brought it into mainstream America. The two most important reasons are; cultural clash and censorship.


 * Anime is a mirror of Japanese culture. Therefore, when Americans watch anime, they often notice small things that a Japanese would discard as normal everyday life. Examples include very, very minute things such as bowing, tea, formality and kimonos, or can include very large parts of Japanese culture like those mentioned in the second part of the paper (Shinto rituals). This cultural clash causes certain uneasiness in some Americans, and this is the most relevant, important aspect of anime and America, when considering the marketability.


 * Japanese Censorship is also very different than American. In America, showing nudity or extreme violence is forbidden on television. In Japan, because of the fact that the Japanese are much more open about nudity and tend to be more lenient in general, nudity can be shown on television. Often times, American censors will ‘draw’ a swimsuit on the character. Public Bathhouses are common in Japan and it is of their culture to bathe together. As a result a bathhouse is frequently used as a setting in anime. These animes are shown on Japanese television, whereas if they were shown (as they were in Japan) on American television they would be heavily edited. Aside from censorship concerning nudity, religious censorship is also very different in Japan and America. For example, in Serial Experiment Lain, a man appears and Lain asks if he is god, and he replies yes. Right there, Americans would go crazy and try to ban it. It gets worse, as ‘god’ eventually grows into a monster and is slain by Lain. The problem concerning anime and the use of god, and this has to do with the issue of cultural clash, is that god in a Japanese sense is considerably different than the American sense. In Serial Experiment Lain, Lain calls god “kami-sama,” but the subtitle and dubbing translates this as “god.” The Japanese view god as a collection of kami. There is no direct translation for kami, however it is best described as either spirits or the supernatural. In America, God means an all powerful, omniscient being.


 * The only reason anime has been popular in America is because it manages to appeal to all audiences. Not in the sense of kids and adults, but in the sense of taste. For the person that takes a particular interest in Japanese culture, classic anime or anime in its purest Japanese roots, usually appeals to them. Titles may include Gundam, Ranma 1/2, Fushigi Yugi, Evangelion or Inu Yasha. These animes are quite fluent with Japanese culture. The other audience tends to like the animes that are much more Americanized or have American influences. The reason Cowboy Bebop is gaining so much appeal and such a large audience is because of its American influences. Spirited Away, while still a very Japanese influenced show, is arguable more like a Disney movie for kids. There are more than two audiences, but the other audiences are merely fans of certain genres. Dragonball appeals to martial arts fans. Sailor Moon appeals to young girls. Pokémon appeals to young children.


 * Another aspect that may be overlooked today is availability. Certain animes are just not released in America, due to costs, content or predicted sales rates. Not many animes are released in American theatres, and if they are, they are in the select few “artsy” theatres or only play in big cities. Anime itself is considerably more expensive than an American VHS or DVD. However, in today’s society, this can be negated with Internet. Internet provides those in America with an easy access to anime, which can be bought for as little as one third the suggested retail price, if not downloaded illegally (known as pirating).

Conclusions

 * Anime today has grown to be a massive industry. While Tezuka’s legacy can still be seen in such films as the recently released Metropolis, anime has reached levels that Tezuka probably would have not expected, for better or worse. Anime has had its affect on America. Many American comic book artists have copied the styles of many popular manga artists. Manga is gaining popularity. This can be seen in the recent 2000 release of “manga read the right way,” which is manga translated and copied so that it is read from right to left (as it is read in Japan). Anime is gradually gaining the respect it deserves as an artistic medium and Americans are slowly realizing anime is not just for children. However, considering most of the anime in Japan is aimed either towards the young or as a hentai for adults, it is doubtful that Japan will shift its focus to sending more serious anime to America. And because anime is a mirror of Japanese culture, a cultural clash occurs when Americans watch the real campy Japanese shows.


 * Ebert put it quite accurately, to quote; Because it is animated and from Japan, ‘Grave of the Fireflies’ has been little seen. When anime fans say how good the film is, nobody takes them seriously....Yes, it's a cartoon, and the kids have eyes like saucers, but it belongs on any list of the greatest war films ever made.


 * The only way anime will truly appeal to the masses is if a) Japanese culture is incorporated so much into American culture that the mirror of anime will be a mirror for America, in thought (mentality) and customs (habits) or b) anime is made into a mirror of American culture or Japanese culture with heavy American influences.