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Bold textWASTE MANAGEMENT AND BASIC SANITATION BY OYAREBU AHMED OMOAKA

ABSTRACT Waste management is a process for the control, disposal or utilization of waste. Wastes are materials that are no longer useful to the possessor. Sanitation is the hygienic disposal or recycling of wastes. Sanitation is an essential public health measure for the effective control of disease. Waste is composed of different materials, which can be solid, liquid or gas. Waste can also be composed of hazardous substances like chemicals and radioactive substances. Many techniques are involved in waste disposal; some are very safe while others are not so safe, like open dumping. The problems of waste management in Nigeria is becoming alarming especially in Lagos state where the population is much about 12-18 millions. Moreover, sanitary workers need to be ensured safety while in and during operation. Therefore, they need protective equipment like head cover, eye and face covers etc to ensure good working. Lastly, Non-Governmental Organization should be set up to ensure proper disposal of waste such as Environmental Safety Department to enlighten people on how to dump, collect and dispose waste. The federal, state and local government should ensure that sanitary workers properly dispose off refuse generated.

1.0	INTRODUCTION The growth of our population in the urban region is rapid and the increase in industrial activities present an important challenge as well as timely opportunity for the application of environmental and conservation management in Nigeria. This is true because as the urban habitat or region is increasing in population, it is accompanied by an increase in the production of different categories of city, town local wastes. The degree of waste management problem in Nigeria is extremely large. For example, many attempt being made at getting rid of wastes from human settlements have been very successful. In developed countries, there are effective systems for the removal of waste from within their settlements although, ultimate and final disposal usually pose problems in terms of environmental, money cost and water resource pollution. For most developing countries, their record is not as glaring, particularly for their larger settlements. They face a difficult task on all fronts – capital resources, public participation and management. This presentation is going to review waste management problems and basic sanitation and the various method and technical practices and finally, a conclusion with recommendation.

1.1	WASTE MANAGEMENT Waste is unwanted or undesired material left over after the completion of a particular process. Waste is defined as materials of solid or semi-solid character that the possessor no longer considers of sufficient value to retain (Gilpin 1976). Waste can also be any sludge, garbage or other discharge materials resulting from various community activities. Waste consists therefore of discharge materials resulting from domestic and industrial and from community, commercial and agricultural operation. Waste can exist as solid, liquid or gas. When released as a liquid or gas, waste is referred to as emissions. Identifying waste is a subjective matter, and waste is only defined as such when perceived as such. Waste management is literally the process of extracting value from waste. It is also the process of managing waste materials (normally those produced as a result of human activities). It involves the collection, transporting, processing and/or disposal of waste materials. Therefore, waste management, in all meaning is a planned system of effectively controlling the production, storage, collection, transportation, processing and disposal or utilization of wastes, in a sanitary, aesthetical, acceptable and economical manner. It also includes all administrative, financial, legal and planning function as well as the physical aspects of waste handling (Gilpin 1976). Also waste management can be defined as the discipline associated with the control, generation, storage, collection, transfer, transportation, processing and disposal of solid or gaseous waste in a manner that is in accordance with best principle of public health, economic, engineering, conservation, aesthetical and other environmental considerations that is also responsible to public attitude (George Thobanoglous et al 1977). History reviewed that the problems of waste management became prominent during the industrial revolution in Great Britain in 1845. Various legislation or committee, which involved the management of waste and basic sanitation, was set up in England. This was done to promote healthy environment and increase men standard of living. In Nigeria, waste management effort, dates back to the colonial era; several efforts have been made by the federal government of Nigeria to ensure adequate good waste standard of living. These efforts include the formation of some committee like Lagos Executive Development Board of 1928, the creation of sanitations boards and task forces, the creation of Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) and the creation of National Orientation Agency. Historically, the aim of waste management has been to prevent or reduce the impact of waste materials on human health or local amenity. Over the last thirty years, however, the focus of waste management in developed countries has shifted to reducing the impact of waste on the environment and recovering resources from waste materials. 1.2	BASIC SANITATION Sanitation is a term for the hygienic disposal or recycling of waste materials, particularly human excrement. It is also the management for protecting the health, especially the removal of human, industrial and domestic waste (E.M. Kpakrick, 1980). Indeed, basic sanitation is a daily routine whereby man keeps his surroundings clean. The refuse that is generated should be well stored for easy collection and disposal by the authority concerned. The principal consequences of highly deficient water supply and waste disposal are the heavy presence of diseases, with development, and diminished productivity. The most reliable indicator of the overall state of health in the country is life expectancy. For sub-populations characterized by extreme poverty, malnutrition, inadequate water supply, unsanitary disposal of wastes, and lack of health services, there has been probably no improvement in health. Sanitation is an important public health measure, which is essential for the prevention of diseases.

1.3	WATER BORNE SEWAGE Sewage is domestic, municipal, or industrial; liquid waste. How it is disposed varies by the area and the local commitment to the environment. Water borne sewage provides not only benefits to health and the environment, but also a very high convenience to consumers. Consequently, there has been little interest in the identification of alternative technologies. This due to its cost, however, conventional water borne sewages offers little hope for improving waste disposal services to either the urban or rural area in developing countries. The World Bank has identified methods that can be used for the disposal of excreta, which can meet every public health test. These methods cost only a third to a tenth per household as conventional sewage. Also, it is important to know that when a latrine is properly located, constructed and maintained, it will meet all public requirements for the sanitary disposal of human wastes. The design can be a simple vault unit or a borehole, one with a complex water seal, or a multiple vault unit. Ceteris paribus, selection of one design over another is determined by a composite of cultural, aesthetic, social and technical factors. The main purpose of conventional water flush system is to provide a high level of conveniences and not better health. Where the cost of water is high, the savings to be realized from the designs of systems with low requirement for flushing water are great. Some toilets require a minimum amount of water while others require bout 50 – 100 litres of water per day. These water requirements, however, imply that the corresponding technologies are feasible only where water is available from house connections. Collecting systems, whether water borne or dry, require investments in off site treatment facilities. Sanitation projects should include arrangements for the satisfactory collection and disposal of solid wastes particularly those that demand for methods of waste disposal other than water borne sewage. (World Bank Report, 1980). 2.1 	WHAT IS WASTE COMPOSING OF? Waste can exist as a solid, liquid or gas when released as liquid or gas, waste is referred to as emissions. The composition of domestic/industrial waste falls into four main categories namely: solid wastes, semi-solid wastes or liquid waste, gaseous waste and hazardous waste. 2.1.1	SOLID WASTE Solid waste can be define as materials that no longer has any value to the person who is responsible for it, and is not intended to be discharged through a pipe. It does not normally include human excreta. It is generated by domestic, commercial, industrial, health care, agricultural and mineral extraction activities and accumulates in streets and public areas. The words “garbage” and “rubbish” are used to refer to some forms of solid waste. Generally, solid waste is classified into “garbage” and “rubbish”. Garbage are degradable that is can be broken down by putrefying bacteria. Such include waste from food such as meat, fish, fruits, vegetables etc. Rubbish is non-degradable waste that is either combustible or non-combustible such as paper, cartons, wood, clothes, polythene bags, iron, glasses, ceramics, etc. 2.1.2	LIQUID OR EFFLUENT WASTE These are wastes that are generated from industrial sites and household domestic activities, which are liquid or semi-liquid in nature. Most of these effluent waste are hazardous to human health especially those of industrial sites. Adequate care must be taken in handling them. 2.1.3	GASEOUS WASTE These are wastes, which are gaseous in nature that is they are gases. Such waste can be generated from household domestic activities, but most of them are from industrial sites. Gaseous wastes include the following: sulphides (S), carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO) etc.

2.1.4	HAZARDOUS WASTE Many by products can fit into hazardous waste. Hazardous waste can be classified into: radioactive substances, chemicals, biological flammable and explosives. 2.1.5	RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES Substances that radiate or emit ions or rays are defined as being radioactive. Such substances are hazardous because long time exposure to radiation often damage living organisms. Disposal sites, which are used for long-term storage of radioactive waste, cannot be used for the disposal of any other waste. This is because the disposal of radioactive waste is a specialized activity, which requires the attention of the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) for effective disposal or management. 2.1.6	CHEMICALS Most chemicals are hazardous and can be classified into four groups: synthetic organic metals, salts and bases, flammable and explosives. 2.1.7	BIOLOGICAL WASTE The principal or main sources of hazardous biological wastes are hospitals and biological research industries. These groups of waste are malignant tissues taken during surgical procedures and contaminated materials such as hypodermic needles, bandages and outdated drugs. Hazardous biological waste can also be generated as by products of industrial biological conversion process. 2.2	FLAMMABLE HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES Most flammable hazardous waste can also be classified as hazardous chemical wastes. This double grouping is necessary because of the high potential hazard in storing, collecting and disposing of flammable wastes. Typical examples include organic solvents, oil, platicizers and organic sludge’s. Many of the listed compounds are toxic in nature. 2.3	EXPLOSIVES HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES Explosives hazardous wastes are mainly ordinary materials and waste resulting from manufacturing. Also, some industrial gases are included in this group. As noted before, explosives such as flammable waste have a high potential for hazard in storage, collection and disposal. Therefore, care should be taken in handling them. These wastes may exist as solid, liquid or gas. Generally, the disposal site for hazardous wastes should be separated from those of municipal wastes. When there are no separate sites, care must be taken to ensure that separate disposal operations are maintained.

3.1 	WASTE MANAGEMENT DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES/SYSTEMS Waste management can involve solid, liquid and/or gaseous waste, and the methods involved for each are disparate that is certainly different. Managing domestic, industrial and commercial waste has traditionally consisted of collection, followed by disposal. Depending upon the type of waste and the area, a level of processing may follow collection. This processing may be to reduce the hazard of waste, recover material for recycling, produce energy from the waste, or reduce it in volume for more efficient disposal. Collection methods vary widely between different countries and regions, and it would be impossible to describe them all. For example, in Australia, most urban domestic households have a 240-litre bin that is emptied weekly by the local council. Many areas, especially those in less developed areas, do not have a formal waste collection system in place. Disposal methods also vary widely. In Australia, the most common method of disposal of solid waste is to landfill it. By contrasts, in Japan, it is more common for waste to be incinerated, because the country is smaller and land is scarce. Solid, liquid or gaseous waste disposal is even seen as the final step in waste management. The effective waste management is dependent on how the effective stages are carried out. In the world, different methods of waste disposal systems are being practiced. These disposal systems are classified into on site and out site disposal techniques. The on site techniques are suitable for a small number of households and easily polluted. This is due to the use of unskilled manpower. Here, home grinder, compactors, and incineration can also operate like those of out sites disposal method. The highly or most notable system of waste disposal includes the following- hog feeding, open dumping, incineration, resources recovery, composting and pyrolysis. 3.1.1 	HOG FEEDING Hog feeding with waste is a form of resource recovery. Hog feeding with waste involves the feeding of swine with edible garbage. For example, the swine is fed with edible garbage in America, but with a law that the garbage should be processed first before it is fed to the swine. This system is uneconomical due to the cost of materials for the processing the garbage and this is the reason why most operators stopped using this system. Hog feeding is restricted because it cannot be used for the disposal of non-edibles, which are the main components of domestic/industrial wastes.

3.1.2 	OPEN DUMPING This technique is mainly practiced in developing countries. By far, it is the cheapest form or method of waste disposal. But this form of waste disposal is a main source of public health and safety problems such as diseases, air and water pollution, and fire. This method is also not recommended. 3.1.3 	SANITARY LANDFILL This technique of waste disposal involves the dumping of refuse in trenches, abandoned mines or quarry sites after proper designing of the site. This technique has to be strictly monitored scientifically in order to meet the criteria, which include elimination or minimization of environmental nuisance such as odours, fly, fires, insects, wind blown litters etc. The possibility of this criterion involves the full utilization of available void spaces by good compaction of wastes, minimization of problems of water pollution and gas generation and also the re-use of the re-claimed land for specific purposes. Disposal of waste in a landfill is the most traditional method of waste disposal, and it remains a common practice in most countries. Historically, landfills were often established in disused quarries or mining voids. A well-run landfill can be a hygienic and relatively inexpensive method of disposing waste materials. Older or poorly managed landfills can create a number of adverse environmental impacts, including wind-blown litters, attraction of vermin and soluble contaminants (leachate) leading into and polluting groundwater. Another product of landfills containing putrescible waste is landfill gas (mostly composed of methane and carbon dioxide), which is produced as the waste breaks down. Some opposed the use of landfill in anyway, anywhere, arguing that the logical end result of landfill operations is that it will eventually leave a drastically polluted planet with no canyons, and no wild space. Some futurist have stated that landfills will be the “ mines of the future”; as some resources become more scarce, they will became valuable enough that it would be necessary to “mine” them from landfills where these materials were previously discarded as valueless waste. 3.1.4 	INCINERATION Incineration is the process of destroying waste materials by burning it. It is the technique of wastes disposal whereby waste is disposed by a controlled combustion of combustible waste at a very high temperature. Refuse collected from trunks are dumped on a storage pit from where it is transferred into the furnace in which temperature and pressure are carefully controlled to ascertain or ensure complete combustion. Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by industry. Though still widely used in many areas (especially developing countries), incineration as a waste management tool is becoming controversial for several reasons; both the gases and the ash residues produced may be toxic. Incineration is often used to produce electricity from waste materials by burning it to produce steam to drive an electrical generator. Due to the huge capital involved and the operation costs, the need for a highly skilled manpower and the technology to effectively manage it and the possible air pollution and fire hazard when the incinerator is not well managed make it difficult for most developing countries to use it. It is also recognized that incineration may be a poor use for many waste materials. Not only are the raw materials lost, but also all of the energy and natural resources (such as water) that was used to produce it. Nevertheless, incineration is recognized as a practical method of disposing of hazardous waste materials especially biological medical waste. 3.1.5 	RESOURCES RECOVERY Resources recovery is the process of turning what has been considered and termed as waste into useful products for other uses. Wilson (1981) observed that we are going into a period of energy crisis and the possible way of creating a remedy for the situation is by the process of converting waste and other sources of biomass into useful materials. A relatively recent idea in waste management has been to treat the waste materials as a resource to be exploited, instead of simply a challenge to be managed and disposed of. There are a number of different methods by which resources may be extracted from waste: the materials may be extracted and recycled or the calorific content of the waste may be converted to electricity. The process of extracting resources or value from waste is variously referred to as secondary resource recovery. This practice is becoming common, especially in metropolitan areas where spaces for new landfill are becoming scarcer. 3.1.6	COMPOSTING AND DIGESTION Waste materials that are organic in nature, such as food scraps and paper products, are increasingly being recycled. These materials are put through a composting or artificial digestion process to decompose the organic matter and kill pathogens. The organic materials are then recycled as mulch or compost for agricultural or landscaping purposes. In composting, refuse can be buried with or without light soil to produce humus that could be used as fertilizers, carbon dioxide, water and heat. Composting methods can be broadly categorized into aerobic or anaerobic methods. Aerobic means ‘requiring air’. This method of composting seeks to aerate the organic material continuously or frequently, in order to promote rapid and odourless decomposition. Anaerobic means ‘not requiring air’. This method of composting seeks to maximize the generation of gases such as methane during the process, in order to produce power from the waste materials. Composting is practiced both in developing and developed countries and it is less expensive. 3.1.7 	PYROLYSIS AND GASIFICATION Pyrolysis and gasification are two related forms of thermal treatment where materials are incinerated with limited oxygen. The process typically occurs in a sealed vessel, under high temperature and pressure. Converting materials to energy this way is more efficient than direct incineration, with more energy able to be recovered and used. Pyrolysis is a technique of thermal decomposition of organic materials in the absence of oxygen and is seen as an alternative to incineration. Pyrolysis is not practiced in developing countries. Pyrolysis of solid waste converts the materials into solid, liquid and gas products. The liquid oil and gas can be burnt to produce energy or refined into products that can be used as fuel and also marketable. The solid residues (char) can be further refined into products such as activated carbon. Pyrolysis produces more energy than consumes. Gasification is used to convert organic materials directly into synthetic gas composed of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The gas is then burnt to produce electricity and steam. Gasification is used in biomass power station to produce energy and heat. 3.1.8 	RECYCLING Recycling means to reuse a material that would otherwise be considered waste. The popular meaning of ‘recycling’ in most developed countries has come to refer to the wide spread collection and reuse of single-use beverage containers. These containers are collected and sorted into common groups, so that the raw materials of the items can be used again (recycled). The most common items recycled in developed countries includes aluminium beverage cans, plastic cans, glass bottles and jars, paper board, cartons, newspaper magazines, and cardboard. Other types of plastic like polyethene vinyl chloride (PVC) are also recyclable, although not commonly collected. Recycled or used materials have to compete in the market place with new (virgin) materials. It usually requires significantly less energy, water and other resources to recycle materials than to produce new ones. For example, recycling 1000kg of aluminium can save approximately 5000kg of bauxite ore being mined and 95% of the energy required to refine it. (ALCOA, Australia). In many areas, material for recycling is collected separately from general waste, with dedicated bins and collection vehicles. Having highlighted and discussed the waste disposal techniques, there is need to emphasize on the waste management problems in Nigeria.

4.1 	WASTE MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS IN NIGERIA Industrial/domestic waste management problems in Nigeria all present similar difficulties but of varying degrees. Most problems of waste management arise from the increased urbanization of cities like building of factories etc. These cities when urbanized increase the population and this increase in population cannot be satisfied by the services, which are provided by the city, this is regarded as the most efficient agent of production. Usually, the public sectors are the main managers of waste in Nigeria although the private sector has for many years now been attached to different department. Omuta (1986) declared that waste management units were sometimes established at the local council or government level as a section of the public health superintendents, which has been operational. Though the capacity and ability to efficiently manage the waste has become inadequate. These inadequacies often lead to the intervention of the state government. This intervention often and rarely produces good result. Waste management on its own is both capital and economic intensive, which means huge capital outlay is required. Where there is availability of funds, the issue of waste management has to be given priority. Apart from funding, there is another important problem- peoples attitude. These include: indiscriminate waste disposal, littering, poor hygienic practice and responsible institution arrangements. In Nigeria presently, the availability and the capacity of waste managers is lacking. Another pertinent problem has to do with equipment. Even peculiarity of Nigerians is another potent factor. In the past, waste management was an appendage under the government setting. The government used to manage waste. Now, there is a gradual shift from government funding with management being transferred into the private hands. This is principally the reason why waste management problems in Nigeria have persisted. The issue of blockage of drainage leading to flooding has become a perennial problem in Nigeria especially in Lagos. The major contributing factor to this issue is the in-discriminate dumping of waste into the gutters. These constitute obstacles to the free flow of water, causing the gutters to overflow, leading to flooding. Possible solutions are presently being embarked on by various organizations in different parts of the country today and even outside the country. Three years back, Clean Up Nigeria, in conjunction with UNESCO, and the Nigeria Institute of Oceanography and Marine Research conducted studies on the causes of flood in Lagos. It was followed by a public enlightenment on how to prevent flooding in Lagos state. These present days, the Lagos state government has joined these two organizations in a project intended to provide modern clean drainage environment in urban areas, in Lagos. The essence of this project is to involve the community to evolve a wise practice agreement on how they can keep the gutters free of sediments, thereby ensuring free flow of water, hence preventing flooding. Presently, an organization known as Clean Up Nigeria embarked on a massive integrated programme starting with public enlightenment programme in August 2003 in Lagos. They recruited 1000 and trained 70% of these sanitation corps. These sanitary corps are Nigerians from all works of life, who will monitor, co-ordinate and correct the unsanitary habits of the people. (NIGERIANEWSNOW.COM, 02 AUGUST 2003). 4.2 	SAFETY MEASURE FOR SANITARY WORKERS In order that a safe, healthy and viable environment can be maintained, the health and lives of this sanitary workers who maintain the environment are very important especially while in operation. Different types of devices are design to be worn by this sanitary workers/inspectors. These devices can provide good protection from nearly all known hazardous substances. These devices are usually known as safety equipment and they include eye and face protection equipment, hand protection, skin protection, respiratory protection, special clothing and head protection equipment. 4.2.1	EYE AND FACE PROTECTION EQUIPMENT Sanitary operators/workers more than often expose their faces and eyes to variety of hazards, which may include dust and harmful radiations. Many eye injuries cannot only disable the workers but can also disfigure them. In the U.S.A., the federal regulation stipulated that protective eye and face equipment should be used where there is reasonable probability of injury that can be prevented and contained by such equipment. Suitable eye equipments are to be provided where sanitary workers/inspector are exposed to the hazard of flying objects, glasses, liquids or injurious radiation or combination of these hazards. 4.2.2 	HAND PROTECTION EQUIPMENT The hand and finger are part of an ingenious bodily tool, which actually performs the work of pulleys and hoist (for pulling and lighting). Hands and fingers are the major location of disabling injuries, this is because they are most exposed to all kinds of unhygienic objects. Cotton or fabric gloves are suitable for protection against dirt and oil stain. Sanitary workers/public inspectors working near industrial estates like those in Lagos, Port Harcourt, Aba and Kaduna needs to be protected from industrial wastes like rubber. Gloves are for handling chemicals and corrosives substances. Neoprene and vinylerene particularly are useful for handling petroleum wastes. 4.2.3 	SKIN PROTECTION EQUIPMENT Protections like clothing need to be worn by the sanitation workers during operation. This will prevent the direct contact of waste to the body. Raincoats and other special designed clothing need to be provided to the sanitary workers to prevent them from influence or contamination of refuse dumps related diseases. 4.2.4 	RESPIRATORY EQUIPMENT When controlling occupational diseases caused by breathing in contaminated air, the sanitary workers are supposed to be provided respiratory tubes or something of that kind to protect the nose. Such operation where respiratory tubes are needed is in the case of incineration and disposal of radioactive and objects emitting offensive odours. 4.2.5	HEAD PROTECTION EQUIPMENT Helmets are to be worn by sanitary workers to be protecting them from penetration of the falling or flying objects while at work. Caps are important to keep their hairs from contact with dirt and dust particles.

4.2.6	SPECIAL CLOTHINGS Special clothing like thick gown made of rubber is essentials for sanitary workers/inspectors while in operation. Even big boots are also essentials. Sanitary workers/inspectors should ensure that they cover the whole of their body and avoid wearing ties and wristwatches.

5.1 	RECOMMENDATION In order to ensure an effective waste management and basic sanitation in urban and rural areas in Nigeria, a separate department to be called “Environmental Safety Department” needs to be created. The responsibility is to educate both the public and health or sanitary inspectors on how to dump waste and the appropriate method in disposing them. This department at local and state levels should always organize lectures for the sanitary workers on how to ensure adequate safety while on duty. This department can be an NGO i.e. a Non-Governmental Organization. In addition to this, the three tiers of government should launch weekly or monthly magazines, which can be entitled “You and Your Waste”, and these magazines should be interpreted at different ethnic languages in Nigeria. This will go along way guiding the public and even sanitary workers on how to dump and collect or dispose waste respectively. More so, the period for refuse collection must be changed. Instead of the usual morning, afternoon and evenings, night period is recommended. This will also go a way as to prevent traffic jam caused by the refuse collection vehicles in Nigeria cities.

5.2 	CONCLUSION In order to maintain good and healthy environment in Nigeria cities and rural areas, the federal, state and local government should ensure that the sanitary workers properly dispose off the refuse generated. Also the above recommendation, when strictly adhered to will ensure a better waste management and the standards of sanitation will be meet.

REFERENCES Gilpin, Alan (1976), Dictionary of Environmental Terms, London: Routlege and Kegan Paul Ltd. FEPA (1992), Environmental Impact Assessment, decree No. 86, Lagos. FEPA (1988), Federal Environmental Protection Agency, decree No. 58 Lagos. Kpakrick, E.M. (1980), Chamber Universal Learners Dictionary, Edinburgh: Chambers Ltd. Omuta, G.E.E. and Omokerephoraye (1986), Regional development and Planning, Geography and Planning Series, Benin: University of Benin. Thobanoglous George, et al (1977), Solid Wastes, Engineering, Principles and Management Issues: McGraw Hill Books, America. Wilson, David (1981), Waste Management Planning Evaluation, Oxford University Press. World Bank Report (1980), Water Supply and Waste Disposal, Poverty and Basic Needs Series, September. http://bambooweb.com/articles/w/a/waste.html http://edugreen.teri.res.in http://en.wikipedia.org http://nigerianewsnow.com/02August2003 http://sanicon.net http://safetyinforcur.com