User talk:Yeahnancy

PLANTS
Plants are living organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. They include familiar organisms such as trees, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae. About 350,000 species of plants, defined as seed plants, bryophytes, ferns and fern allies, are estimated to exist currently. As of 2004, some 287,655 species had been identified, of which 258,650 are flowering and 18,000 bryophytes. Green plants, sometimes called metaphytes or viridiplantae, obtain most of their energy from sunlight via a process called photosynthesis.

mathematics
Maths" and "Math" redirect here. For other uses of "Mathematics" or "Math", see Mathematics and Math. Euclid, Greek mathematician, 3rd century BC, as imagined by Raphael in this detail from The School of Athens. Euclid, Greek mathematician, 3rd century BC, as imagined by Raphael in this detail from The School of Athens.

Mathematics is the body of knowledge centered on such concepts as quantity, structure, space, and change, and also the academic discipline that studies them. Benjamin Peirce called it "the science that draws necessary conclusions".Other practitioners of mathematics maintain that mathematics is the science of pattern, and that mathematicians seek out patterns whether found in numbers, space, science, computers, imaginary abstractions, or elsewhere.Mathematicians explore such concepts, aiming to formulate new conjectures and establish their truth by rigorous deduction from appropriately chosen axioms and definitions.

Through the use of abstraction and logical reasoning, mathematics evolved from counting, calculation, measurement, and the systematic study of the shapes and motions of physical objects. Knowledge and use of basic mathematics have always been an inherent and integral part of individual and group life. Refinements of the basic ideas are visible in mathematical texts originating in the ancient Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Indian, Chinese, Greek and Islamic worlds. Rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics, most notably in Euclid's Elements. The development continued in fitful bursts until the Renaissance period of the 16th century, when mathematical innovations interacted with new scientific discoveries, leading to an acceleration in research that continues to the present day.

Today, mathematics is used throughout the world in many fields, including natural science, engineering, medicine, and the social sciences such as economics and psychology. Applied mathematics, the application of mathematics to such fields, inspires and makes use of new mathematical discoveries and sometimes leads to the development of entirely new disciplines. Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in mind, although applications for what began as pure mathematics are often discovered later.

MUSIC
Music as an academic discipline mainly focuses on two career paths, music performance (focused on the orchestra and the concert hall) and music education (training music teachers). Students learn to play instruments, but also study music theory, musicology, history of music and composition. In the liberal arts tradition, music is also used to broaden skills of non-musicians by teaching skills such as concentration and listening.

THEATRE
Theatre or theater (Greek "theatron", θέατρον) is the branch of the performing arts concerned with acting out stories in front of an audience using combinations of speech, gesture, music, dance, sound and spectacle — indeed any one or more elements of the other performing arts. In addition to the standard narrative dialogue style, theatre takes such forms as opera, ballet, mime, kabuki, classical Indian dance, Chinese opera, mummers' plays, and love.

DANCE
Dance (from Old French dancier, perhaps from Frankish) generally refers to human movement either used as a form of expression or presented in a social, spiritual or performance setting.

Dance is also used to describe methods of non-verbal communication (see body language) between humans or animals (bee dance, mating dance), motion in inanimate objects (the leaves danced in the wind), and certain musical forms or genres.

Choreography is the art of making dances, and the person who does this is called a choreographer. People danced to relieve stress.

Definitions of what constitutes dance are dependent on social, cultural, aesthetic, artistic and moral constraints and range from functional movement (such as Folk dance) to codified, virtuoso techniques such as ballet. In sports, gymnastics, figure skating and synchronized swimming are dance disciplines while Martial arts 'kata' are often compared to dances.

MIGUEL LOPEZ DE LEGAZPI
Miguel López de Legazpi[1] (1502 - August 20, 1572, Manila), also known as El Adelantado (The Governor) and El Viejo (The Elder), was a Spanish Basque conquistador who established the first colony in the Philippine Islands in 1565, thus he is referred to as the "father of the Spanish colony in the Philippines". After obtaining peace with the Muslims, López de Legazpi made Manila as a capital in 1571.

Early years

Born in 1502, Miguel López de Legaspi was the youngest son of Don Juan Martínez López de Legaspi and Elvira de Gurruchátegui. He was born to a noble family and lived in the small town of Zumárraga, in the Basque province of Guipúzcoa in Spain.

Between 1526 and 1527, López de Legaspi worked as a councilor in the municipal government of his home town. In 1528, after Hernán Cortés had established settlements in Mexico, López de Legaspi went to Mexico (New Spain) to start a new life. This was due to the death of his parents and his dissatisfaction with his eldest sibling, who inherited all of the family fortune. In Tlaxcala, he worked with Juan Garcés and Juan's sister, Isabel Garcés. López de Legaspi would go on to marry Isabel and have nine children with her. Isabel died in the mid 1550s.

Between the periods of 1528 and 1559, he worked as a leader of the financial department council and as the civil governor of Mexico City. He was later commissioned by the viceroy, Luis de Velasco, in early 1564, to lead an expedition in the Pacific Ocean, to find the Spice Islands where the previous explorers Ferdinand Magellan and Ruy López de Villalobos had landed in 1521 and 1543, respectively. The expedition was ordered by King Philip II, after whom the islands were eventually named. The viceroy died in July of that year, but the Audiencia and Legaspi completed the preparations for the expedition. On the early morning of November 21, 1564, armed with five ships and 500 soldiers, he sailed from the port of Barra de Navidad, New Spain, in what is now Jalisco state, Mexico.

ROYAL AUDIENCIA
The Royal Audiencia and Chancellery (Spanish: Real audiencia y chancillería, and Catalan: Reial audiència) was a court that functioned as an appellate court in Spain and its empire. The name of the institution has been sometimes translated as Royal Audience. Each audiencia had oidores (Spanish: hearers, judges). The first audiencia was founded at Valladolid in the kingdom of Castile in 1371. The Valladolid Audiencia functioned as the highest court in Castile for the next two centuries. After the union of the crowns of Castile and Aragon to form the crown of Spain and the Spanish conquest of Granada in 1492, the audiencia was divided in two, with the Audiencia of Valladolid taking cases from north of the River Tagus (Tajo), and the Audiencia of Granada (1494) taking cases from south of the river.

Under Charles V and Philip II, the audiencia system was extended first to Aragon (1528) and then to the rest of the Spanish Empire. Audiencias in cities that belong to Spain today included Seville (1566), Las Palmas (1568), Majorca (1571), Asturias (1717), and Extremadura (1790).

PIANO
The piano is a musical instrument played by means of a keyboard that produces sound by striking steel strings with felt hammers. The hammers immediately rebound allowing the strings to continue vibrating at their resonant frequency.These vibrations are transmitted through a bridge to a soundboard that amplifies them.

The piano is widely used in Western music for solo performance, ensemble use, chamber music, and accompaniment. It is also very popular as an aid to composing and rehearsal. Although not portable and often expensive, the piano's versatility and ubiquity have made it one of the most familiar musical instruments. It is sometimes classified as both a percussion and a stringed instrument. According to the Hornbostel-Sachs method of music classification, it is grouped with Chordophones.

The word piano is a shortened form of the word pianoforte, which is seldom used except in formal language and derived from the original Italian name for the instrument, clavicembalo [or gravicembalo] col piano e forte (literally harpsichord with soft and loud). This refers to the instrument's responsiveness to keyboard touch, which allows the pianist to produce notes at different dynamic levels by controlling the speed with which the hammers hit the strings.

PIANIST
A pianist (/'piənɪst/) is a musician who plays the piano. A professional pianist can perform solo pieces, play with an ensemble or orchestra, or accompany one or more singers, solo instrumentalists, or other performers.

A performing classical pianist usually starts playing piano at a very young age, some as early as three years old. Many well-known classical composers were also virtuoso pianists including: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, Frédéric Chopin, Franz Liszt, Sergei Rachmaninoff, Robert Schumann, Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Carl Maria von Weber, Charles-Valentin Alkan, Johannes Brahms, Ferruccio Busoni, Anton Rubinstein, Alexander Scriabin, Sergei Prokofiev, Dmitri Shostakovich.

Most western forms of music can make use of the piano. Consequently, pianists have a wide variety of repertoire and styles to choose from, including jazz, classical music, and all sorts of popular music.

== CHILD LABOUR ==

"For oh,"say the children, we are weary And we cannot run or leap; If we cared for any meadows, it were merely To drop down in them and sleep. Our knees tremble sorely in the stooping. We fall upon our faces, trying to go; And underneath our heavy eyelids drooping, The reddest flower would look as pale as snow. For,all days; we drag our burden tiring Through the coal-dark,underground; Or all day, we drive the wheels of iron In the factories, round and round.

-Elizabeth Barret Browning

==LOUIS PASTEUR ==

Louis Pasteur (27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895),a French chemist and microbiologist, is best known for his remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and prevention of disease. His experiments supported the germ theory of disease, also reducing mortality from puerperal fever (childbed), and he created the first vaccine for rabies. He was best known to the general public for inventing a method to stop milk and wine from causing sickness - this process came to be called pasteurization. He is regarded as one of the three main founders of microbiology, together with Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch. He is also credited with dispelling the theory of spontaneous generation with his experiment employing chicken broth and a goose neck flask. He also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, most notably the asymmetry of crystals.[1] He is buried beneath the Institut Pasteur, an incredibly rare honor in France, where being buried in a cemetery is mandatory save for the fewer than 300 "Great Men" who are entombed in the Panthéon.

LOUIS PASTEUR
French microbiologist and chemist Born 	27 December 1822(1822-12-27) Dole, Franche-Comté, France Died 	28 September 1895 (aged 72) Marnes-la-Coquette, Hauts-de-Seine, France

MICROBIOLOGIST
A microbiologist is a scientist who works in the field of microbiology. Most have a university degree in the subject.

Specialists in the broad field of microbiology include:

* Bacteriologists, who work in the field of bacteriology and study bacteria. * Environmental microbiologists - work in the field of environmental microbiology and study microbial processes in the environment. * Food microbiologists, who work in the food industry and study pathogenic microorganisms that cause foodborne illness and spoilage. * Industrial microbiologists, who generally work in biotechnology and study microorganisms that produce useful products. * Medical microbiologists, medical practitioners (physicians) who have chosen to specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of microbial diseases in patients. * Mycologists, who work in the field of mycology and study fungi. * Protozoologists, who work in the field of protozoology and study protists. * Virologists, who work in the field of virology and study viruses. * Microbial epidemiologists, who study the role of microorganisms in health and illness.

SCIENTIST
Scientist, in the broadest sense, refers to any person that engages in a systematic activity to acquire knowledge or an individual that engages in such practices and traditions that are linked to schools of thought or philosophy. In a more restricted sense, scientist refers to individuals who use the scientific method.The person may be an expert in one or more areas of science.This article focuses on the more restricted use of the word.

ZOOLOGY
Zoology (from Greek ζῷον, zoon, "animal" + λόγος, "logos", "knowledge") is the branch of biology concerned with the study of animals

BOTANY
Botany, plant science(s), phytology, or plant biology is a branch of biology and is the scientific study of plant life and development. Botany covers a wide range of scientific disciplines that study plants, algae, and fungi including: structure, growth, reproduction, metabolism, development, diseases, and chemical properties and evolutionary relationships between the different groups. Botany, the study of plants, began with tribal efforts to identify edible, medicinal and poisonous plants, making botany one of the oldest sciences. From this ancient interest in plants, the scope of botany has increased to include the study of over 550,000 kinds or species of living organisms.

BERIBERI
Beriberi (pronounced Berry-berry) is a nervous system ailment caused by thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency. Thiamine is needed to help convert carbohydrates into glucose. Symptoms include severe lethargy and fatigue, together with complications affecting the cardiovascular, nervous, muscular, and gastrointestinal systems.

SARS
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is a respiratory disease in humans which is caused by the SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV).There has been one near pandemic to date, between November 2002 and July 2003, with 8,096 known infected cases and 774 deaths (a case-fatality rate of 9.6%) worldwide being listed in the World Health Organization's (WHO) April 21, 2004 concluding report.

Mortality by age group as of 8 May 2003 is below 1 percent for people aged 24 or younger, 6 percent for those 25 to 44, 15 percent in those 45 to 64 and more than 50 percent for those over 65.For comparison, the case fatality rate for influenza is usually around 0.6 percent (primarily among the elderly) but can rise as high as 33 percent in locally severe epidemics of new strains. The mortality rate of the primary viral pneumonia form is about 70 percent.

DISEASE
A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly. It is also defined as a way of the body harming itself in an abnormal way,associated with specific symptoms and signs.

In human beings,"disease" is often used more broadly to refer to any condition that causes extreme pain, dysfunction, distress, social problems, and/or death to the person afflicted, or similar problems for those in contact with the person. In this broader sense, it sometimes includes injuries, disabilities, disorders, syndromes, infections, isolated symptoms, deviant behaviors, and atypical variations of structure and function, while in other contexts and for other purposes these may be considered distinguishable categories.

INFLUENZA
Influenza, commonly known as ("the") flu, is an infectious disease of birds and mammals caused by RNA viruses of the family Orthomyxoviridae (the influenza viruses). The name influenza comes from the Italian: influenza, meaning "influence", (Latin: influentia). In humans, common symptoms of the disease are chills and fever, sore throat, muscle pains, severe headache, coughing, weakness and general discomfort.In more serious cases, influenza causes pneumonia, which can be fatal, particularly in young children and the elderly. Although it is sometimes confused with the common cold, influenza is a much more severe disease and is caused by a different type of virus.Influenza can produce nausea and vomiting, especially in children,but these symptoms are more characteristic of the unrelated gastroenteritis, which is sometimes called "stomach flu" or "24-hour flu".

CHICKENPOX
Chickenpox is a highly contagious illness caused by primary infection with varicella zoster virus (VZV). It generally begins with conjunctival and catarrhal symptoms and then characteristic spots appearing in two or three waves, mainly on the body and head rather than the hands and becoming itchy raw pockmarks, small open sores which heal mostly without scarring.

Chickenpox has a 10-21 day incubation period and is spread easily through aerosolized droplets from the nasopharynx of ill individuals or through direct contact with secretions from the rash. Following primary infection there is usually lifelong protective immunity from further episodes of chickenpox.

Chickenpox is rarely fatal, although it is generally more severe in adults than in children. Pregnant women and those with a suppressed immune system are at highest risk of serious complications. The most common late complication of chicken pox is shingles, caused by reactivation of the varicella zoster virus decades after the initial episode of chickenpox.

DIARRHEA
In medicine, diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea (see spelling differences), is frequent loose or liquid bowel movements. Acute diarrhea is a common cause of death in developing countries and the second most common cause of infant deaths worldwide.

AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS or Aids) is a set of symptoms and infections resulting from the damage to the human immune system caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).This condition progressively reduces the effectiveness of the immune system and leaves individuals susceptible to opportunistic infections and tumors. HIV is transmitted through direct contact of a mucous membrane or the bloodstream with a bodily fluid containing HIV, such as blood, semen, vaginal fluid, preseminal fluid, and breast milk.This transmission can involve anal, vaginal or oral sex, blood transfusion, contaminated hypodermic needles, exchange between mother and baby during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding, or other exposure to one of the above bodily fluids.

AIDS is now a pandemic.In 2007, an estimated 33.2 million people lived with the disease worldwide, and it killed an estimated 2.1 million people, including 330,000 children.Over three-quarters of these deaths occurred in sub-Saharan Africa,retarding economic growth and destroying human capital.Most researchers believe that HIV originated in sub-Saharan Africa during the twentieth century.AIDS was first recognized by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 1981 and its cause, HIV, identified by American and French scientists in the early 1980s.

Although treatments for AIDS and HIV can slow the course of the disease, there is currently no vaccine or cure. Antiretroviral treatment reduces both the mortality and the morbidity of HIV infection, but these drugs are expensive and routine access to antiretroviral medication is not available in all countries.Due to the difficulty in treating HIV infection, preventing infection is a key aim in controlling the AIDS epidemic, with health organizations promoting safe sex and needle-exchange programmes in attempts to slow the spread of the virus.

SMALLPOX
Smallpox is an infectious disease unique to humans, caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor.The disease is also known by the Latin names Variola or Variola vera, which is a derivative of the Latin varius, meaning spotted, or varus, meaning "pimple". The term "smallpox" was first used in Europe in the 15th century to distinguish variola from the great pox (syphilis).

Smallpox localizes in small blood vessels of the skin and in the mouth and throat. In the skin, this results in a characteristic maculopapular rash, and later, raised fluid-filled blisters. V. major produces a more serious disease and has an overall mortality rate of 30–35%. V. minor causes a milder form of disease (also known as alastrim, cottonpox, milkpox, whitepox, and Cuban itch) which kills ~1% of its victims.Long-term complications of V. major infection include characteristic scars, commonly on the face, which occurred in 65–85% of survivors.Blindness resulting from corneal ulceration and scarring, and limb deformities due to arthritis and osteomyelitis are less common complications, seen in about 2–5% of cases.

Smallpox is believed to have emerged in human populations about 10,000 BC.The disease killed an estimated 400,000 Europeans each year during the 18th century (including five reigning monarchs), and was responsible for a third of all blindness.Between 20 and 60% of all those infected—and over 80% of infected children—died from the disease.

During the 20th century, it is estimated that smallpox was responsible for 300–500 million deaths.As recently as 1967, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that 15 million people contracted the disease and that two million died in that year.After successful vaccination campaigns throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, the WHO certified the eradication of smallpox in 1979.To this day, smallpox is the only human infectious disease to have been completely eradicated.

MEASLES
Measles is a disease caused by a virus, specifically a paramyxovirus of the genus Morbillivirus. 'German measles' is an unrelated condition caused by the rubella virus.

Measles is spread through respiration (contact with fluids from an infected person's nose and mouth, either directly or through aerosol transmission), and is highly contagious—90% of people without immunity sharing a house with an infected person will catch it.Airborne precautions should be taken for all suspected cases of measles.

The incubation period usually lasts for 4–12 days (during which there are no symptoms). Infected people remain contagious from the appearance of the first symptoms until 3–5 days after the rash appears.

Reports of measles go as far back to at least 600 B.C.E. however, the first scientific description of the disease and its distinction from smallpox is attributed to the Persian physician Ibn Razi (Rhazes) 860-932 who published a book entitled "The Book of Smallpox and Measles" (in Arabic: Kitab fi al-jadari wa-al-hasbah). In roughly the last 150 years, measles has been estimated to have killed about 200 million people worldwide.In 1954, the virus causing the disease was isolated from an 11-year old boy from the US, David Edmonston, and adapted and propagated on chick embryo tissue culture.To date, 21 strains of the measles virus have been identified.Licensed vaccines to prevent the disease became available in 1963.

DIABETES
Diabetes mellitus (IPA: /ˌdaɪəˈbiːtiːz/ or /ˌdaɪəˈbiːtəs/, /məˈlaɪtəs/ or /ˈmɛlətəs/), often referred to simply as diabetes (Ancient Greek: διαβήτης "to pass through [urine]"),is a syndrome of disordered metabolism, usually due to a combination of hereditary and environmental causes, resulting in abnormally high blood sugar levels (hyperglycemia).Blood glucose levels are controlled by the hormone insulin made in the beta cells of the pancreas.The two most common forms of diabetes are due to either a diminished production of insulin (in type 1), or diminished response by the body to insulin (in type 2 and gestational).Both lead to hyperglycemia, which largely causes the acute signs of diabetes: excessive urine production, resulting compensatory thirst and increased fluid intake, blurred vision, unexplained weight loss, lethargy, and changes in energy metabolism.

All types of diabetes have been treatable since insulin became medically available in 1921, but there is no widely available cure for any form of diabetes. Type 1 diabetes can only be treated with injected insulin, with dietary and other lifestyle adjustments commonly being part of the treatment. Type 2 is usually managed with a combination of dietary treatment, tablets and, frequently, insulin supplementation. Insulin can also be delivered continuously by a specialized pump which provides subcutaneous insulin through a temporary catheter.

Diabetes and its treatments can cause many complications. Acute complications (hypoglycemia, ketoacidosis, or nonketotic hyperosmolar coma) may occur if the disease is not adequately controlled. Serious long-term complications (i.e., chronic side effects) include cardiovascular disease (doubled risk), chronic renal failure, retinal damage (which can lead to blindness), nerve damage (of several kinds), and microvascular damage, which may cause impotence and poor wound healing. Poor healing of wounds, particularly of the feet, can lead to gangrene, and possibly to amputation. Adequate treatment of diabetes, as well as increased emphasis on blood pressure control and lifestyle factors (such as not smoking and maintaining a healthy body weight), may improve the risk profile of most of the chronic complications. In the developed world, diabetes is the most significant cause of adult blindness in the non-elderly and the leading cause of non-traumatic amputation in adults, and diabetic nephropathy is the main illness requiring renal dialysis in the United States.

PNEUMONIA
Pneumonia is an inflammatory illness of the lung.Frequently, it is described as lung parenchyma/alveolar inflammation and abnormal alveolar filling with fluid. The alveoli are microscopic air-filled sacs in the lungs responsible for absorbing oxygen. Pneumonia can result from a variety of causes, including infection with bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites, and chemical or physical injury to the lungs. Its cause may also be officially described as idiopathic—that is, unknown—when infectious causes have been excluded.

Typical symptoms associated with pneumonia include cough, chest pain, fever, and difficulty in breathing. Diagnostic tools include x-rays and examination of the sputum. Treatment depends on the cause of pneumonia; bacterial pneumonia is treated with antibiotics.

Pneumonia is a common illness which occurs in all age groups, and is a leading cause of death among the elderly and people who are chronically and terminally ill. Vaccines to prevent certain types of pneumonia are available. The prognosis depends on the type of pneumonia, the appropriate treatment, any complications, and the person's underlying health.

MUMPS
MUMPS (Massachusetts General Hospital Utility Multi-Programming System), or alternatively M, is a programming language created in the late 1960s, originally for use in the healthcare industry. It was designed to make writing database-driven applications easy while simultaneously making efficient use of computing resources. It was adopted as the language-of-choice for many healthcare and financial information systems/databases (especially ones developed in the 1970s and early 1980s) and continues to be used by many of the same clients today. It is currently used by the world's largest electronic health record systems as well as by multiple banking networks and online trading/investment services.

Because it predates C and most other popular languages in current usage, it has very different syntax and terminology. It offers a number of features unavailable in other languages, including some rarely used programming and database concepts. Variations of MUMPS are available which have extended the language to include object orientation and even use of SQL statements.

TYPHOID
Typhoid fever, also known as enteric fever, bilious fever, Yellow Jack or commonly just typhoid,is an illness caused by the bacterium Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi. Common worldwide, it is transmitted by the ingestion of food or water contaminated with feces from an infected person.The bacteria then perforate through the intestinal wall and are phagocytosed by macrophages. Salmonella Typhi then alters its structure to resist destruction and allow them to exist within the macrophage. This renders them resistant to damage by PMN's, complement and the immune response. The organism is then spread via the lymphatics while inside the macrophages. This gives them access to the Reticulo-Endothelial System and then to the different organs throughout the body. The organism is a Gram-negative short bacillus that is motile due to its peritrichous flagella. The bacteria grows best at 37 °C/99 °F – human body temperature.

RHEUMATISM
Rheumatism or Rheumatic disorder is a non-specific term for medical problems affecting the heart, bones, joints, kidney, skin and lung. The study of, and therapeutic interventions in, such disorders is called rheumatology.

COMMON COLD
Acute viral nasopharyngitis, or acute coryza, usually known as the common cold, is a highly contagious, viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory system, primarily caused by picornaviruses (including rhinoviruses) or coronaviruses.

Common symptoms are sore throat, runny nose, nasal congestion, sneezing and cough; sometimes accompanied by 'pink eye', muscle aches, fatigue, malaise, headaches, muscle weakness, and loss of appetite. Fever and extreme exhaustion are more usual in influenza. The symptoms of a cold usually resolve after about one week, but can last up to two. Symptoms may be more severe in infants and young children. Although the disease is generally mild and self-limiting, patients with common colds often seek professional medical help, use over-the-counter drugs, and may miss school or work days. The annual cumulative societal cost of the common cold in developed countries is considerable in terms of money spent on remedies, and hours of work lost.

The primary method to prevent infection is hand-washing to minimize person-to-person transmission of the virus. There are no antiviral drugs approved to treat or cure the infection. Most available medications are palliative and treat symptoms only. Megadoses of vitamin C, preparations from echinacea, and zinc gluconate have been studied as treatments for the common cold although none has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration or European Medicines Agency.

ASTHMA
Asthma is a chronic condition involving the respiratory system in which the airways occasionally constrict, become inflamed, and are lined with excessive amounts of mucus, often in response to one or more triggers.These episodes may be triggered by such things as exposure to an environmental stimulant such as an allergen, environmental tobacco smoke, cold or warm air, perfume, pet dander, moist air, exercise or exertion, or emotional stress. In children, the most common triggers are viral illnesses such as those that cause the common cold.This airway narrowing causes symptoms such as wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness, and coughing. The airway constriction responds to bronchodilators. Between episodes, most patients feel well but can have mild symptoms and they may remain short of breath after exercise for longer periods of time than the unaffected individual. The symptoms of asthma, which can range from mild to life threatening, can usually be controlled with a combination of drugs and environmental changes.

Public attention in the developed world has recently focused on asthma because of its rapidly increasing prevalence, affecting up to one in four urban children.

BIENNIAL PLANTS
A biennial plant is a flowering plant that takes two years to complete its lifecycle.In the first year the plant grows leaves, stems, and roots (vegetative structures),then it enters a period of dormancy over the colder months. Usually the stem remains very short and the leaves are low to the ground,forming a rosette. Many biennials require a cold treatment, or vernalization, before they will flower. During the next spring or summer, the stem of the biennial plant elongates greatly, or "bolts".The plant then flowers, producing fruits and seeds before it finally dies.There are far fewer biennials than either perennials or annuals.

Under extreme climatic conditions, a biennial plant may complete its life cycle in a very short period of time (e.g. three or four months instead of two years).This is quite common in vegetable or flower seedlings that were exposed to cold conditions, or vernalized, before they were planted in the ground.This behavior leads to many normally biennial plants being treated as annuals in some areas. Flowering can be induced in some biennials without vernalization by application of the plant hormone gibberellin, but this is rarely done commercially. The Sweet William Dwarf plant is a biennial plant The Sweet William Dwarf plant is a biennial plant.

From a gardener's perspective,a plant's status as annual, biennial, or perennial often varies based on location or purpose. Biennials grown for flowers, fruits,or seeds need to be grown for two years. Biennials that are grown for edible leaves or roots are grown as annuals, e.g. beets, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, carrots, celery, lettuce, parsley, and Swiss chard. If a normally biennial plant is grown in extremely harsh conditions, it is likely to be treated as an annual because it will not survive the winter cold. Conversely, an annual grown under extremely favorable conditions may have highly successful seed propagation, giving it the appearance of being biennial or perennial.Some short-lived perennials may appear to be biennial rather than perennial.True biennials flower only once,while many perennials will flower every year once mature.

Examples of biennial plants are parsley, Lunaria, silverbeet, Sweet William, colic weed, and carrot. Plant breeders have produced annual cultivars of several biennials that will flower the first year from seed, e.g.foxglove and stock.

ANNUAL PLANT
Botanically, an annual plant is a plant that usually germinates, flowers and dies in one year. True annuals will only live longer than a year if they are prevented from setting seed. Some seedless plants can also be considered annuals even though they do not flower.

In gardening, annual often refers to a plant grown outdoors in the spring and summer and surviving just for one growing season. Many food plants are, or are grown as, annuals, including most domesticated grains. Some perennials and biennials are grown in gardens as annuals for convenience, particularly if they are not considered cold hardy for the local climate. Carrot, celery and parsley are true biennials that are usually grown as annual crops for their edible roots, petioles and leaves, respectively. Tomato, sweet potato and bell pepper are tender perennials usually grown as annuals.

Ornamental annualer perennials commonly grown as annuals are impatiens, wax begonia, snapdragon, Pelargonium, coleus and petunia. Some biennials that can be grown as annuals are pansy and hollyhock.

One seed-to-seed life cycle for an annual can occur in as little as a month in some species, though most last several months. Oilseed rapa can go from seed-to-seed in about five weeks under a bank of fluorescent lamps in a school classroom. Many desert annuals are termed ephemerals because their seed-to-seed life cycle is only a few weeks. They spend most of the year as seeds to survive dry conditions.

Examples of true annuals include corn, lettuce, pea, cauliflower, watermelon, bean, zinnia and marigold.

LYCOPODIOPHYTA
The Division Lycopodiophyta (sometimes called Lycophyta) is a tracheophyte subdivision of the Kingdom Plantae. It is the oldest extant (living) vascular plant division at around 420 million years old,[citation needed] and includes some of the most "primitive" extant species. These species reproduce by shedding spores and have macroscopic alternation of generations, although some are homosporous while others are heterosporous. They differ from all other vascular plants in having microphylls, leaves that have only a single vascular trace (vein) rather than the much more complex megaphylls found in ferns and seed plants.

There are around 1,200 living species divided into three main groups within the Lycopodiophyta, sometimes separated at the level of order and sometimes at the level of class. These are subdivided at the class level here:

* Class Lycopodiopsida – clubmosses and firmosses * Class Selaginellopsida – spikemosses * Class Isoetopsida – quillworts and scale trees

PERENNIAL
A perennial plant or perennial (Latin per, "through", annus, "year") is a plant that lives for more than two years. When used as a noun, this term applies specifically to perennial herbaceous plants, even though woody plants like shrubs and trees are also perennial in their habit.

Perennials, especially small flowering plants, grow and bloom over the spring and summer and then die back every autumn and winter, then return in the spring from their root-stock rather than seeding themselves as an annual plant does. These are known as herbaceous perennials. However, depending on the rigors of local climate, a plant that is a perennial in its native habitat, or in a milder garden, may be treated by a gardener as an annual and planted out every year, from seed, from cuttings or from divisions.

PTERIDOPHYTES
A fern is any one of a group of about 20,000 species of plants classified in the phylum or division Pteridophyta, also known as Filicophyta. The group is also referred to as Polypodiophyta, or Polypodiopsida when treated as a subdivision of tracheophyta (vascular plants). The study of ferns and other pteridophytes is called pteridology, and one who studies ferns and other pteridophytes is called a pteridologist. The term "pteridophyte" has traditionally been used to describe all seedless vascular plants, making it synonymous with "ferns and fern allies". This can be confusing since members of the fern phylum Pteridophyta are also sometimes referred to as pteridophytes.

MAMMALS
Mammals (class Mammalia) are a class of vertebrate animals characterized by the presence of sweat glands, including sweat glands modified for milk production, hair, three middle ear bones used in hearing, and a neocortex region in the brain.

All mammals (except for the five species of monotremes) give birth to live young instead of laying eggs. Most mammals also possess specialized teeth, and the largest group of mammals, the placentals, use a placenta during gestation. The mammalian brain regulates endothermic and circulatory systems, including a four-chambered heart.

There are approximately 5,400 species of mammals, ranging in size from the 30–40-millimetre (1.2–1.6 in) Bumblebee Bat to the 33-metre (110 ft) Blue Whale, distributed in about 1,200 genera, 153 families, and 29 orders,[1] though this varies by classification scheme.

Most mammals belong to the placental group. The four largest orders within the placental mammals are Rodentia (mice, rats, and other small, gnawing mammals), Chiroptera (bats), Carnivora (dogs, cats, bears, and other mammals that primarily eat meat), and Cetartiodactyla (including numerous herbivore species, such as deer, sheep, goats, and buffalos, plus whales). The human species is also a placental mammal, a member of the order Primates.

Phylogenetically, Mammalia is defined as all descendants of the most recent common ancestor of monotremes (e.g., echidnas and platypuses) and therein mammals (marsupials and placentals). This means that some extinct groups of "mammals" are not members of the crown group Mammalia, even though most of them have all the characteristics that traditionally would have classified them as mammals. These "mammals" are now usually placed in the unranked clade Mammaliaformes.

The mammalian line of descent diverged from the sauropsid line at the end of the Carboniferous period. The sauropsids would evolve into modern-day reptiles and birds, while the synapsid branch led to mammals. The first true mammals appeared in the Jurassic period. Modern mammalian orders appeared in the Palaeocene and Eocene epochs of the Palaeogene period.

EUTHERIA
Eutheria are a group of mammals consisting of placental mammals plus all extinct mammals that are more closely related to living placentals (such as humans) than to living marsupials (such as kangaroos). They are distinguished from non-eutherians by various features of the feet, ankles, jaws and teeth. One of the major differences between placental and non-placental eutherians is that placentals lack the epipubic bones which are present in all other fossil and living mammals.

The earliest known fossil eutherian, Eomaia was found in Asia and id dated to the Early Cretaceous period, about 125 million years ago.

CRETACEOUS
The Cretaceous (pronounced /kriːˈteɪʃəs/, usually abbreviated 'K' for its German translation "Kreide") is a geologic period and system, reaching from the end of the Jurassic Period, (145.5 ± 4 million years ago (Ma) to the beginning of the Paleocene Period, 65.5 ± 0.3 Ma. It is the youngest geological period of the Mesozoic, and at 80 million years long, the longest period of the Phanerozoic. The end of the Cretaceous defines the boundary between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras.

The Cretaceous (from Latin creta meaning 'chalk') as a separate period was first defined by a Belgian geologist Jean d'Omalius d'Halloy in 1822, using strata in the Paris Basin and named for the extensive beds of chalk (calcium carbonate deposited by the shells of marine invertebrates, principally coccoliths), found in the upper Cretaceous of continental Europe and the British Isles (including the White Cliffs of Dover).

THALLOPHYTE
The thallophytes are a polyphyletic group of non-mobile organisms traditionally described as "relatively simple plants" or "lower plants" with undifferentiated bodies (thalli). They were a defunct division of Kingdom Plantae, the Thallophyta (or Thallobionta) that included fungus and algae, and lichens occasionally bacteria and the Myxomycophyta.

They are sometimes referred to as "thalloid plants", as opposed to vascular plants. Stephan Ladislaus Endlicher, a 19th-century Austrian botanist, separated the Vegetable Kingdom (equivalent of Kingdom Plantae) into the Thallophytes and the Cormophytes (vascular plants) in 1836. Thallophytes were known as the Thallogens according to John Lindley, an English botanist in the 19th century. Likewise, Cormophytes were also known as Cormogens in the Lindley system.

The term was used only in former classifications: comprising what is now considered a heterogeneous assemblage of flowerless and seedless organisms: algae; bacteria; fungi; lichens.

MARSUPIAL
Marsupials are an infraclass of mammals, characterized by a distinctive pouch (called the marsupium), in which females carry their young through early infancy.

PROTOZOA
Protozoa (in Greek πρῶτον proton "first" and ζῷα zoia "animals") are unicellular eukaryotes, (singular protozoan). While there is no exact definition of the term, most scientists use protozoan to refer to a unicellular heterotrophic protist, like amoebas and ciliates. The term algae is used for the photosynthetic microorganisms. However, the distinction between the two is often vague. For example the alga Dinobryon has chloroplasts for photosynthesis but it can also feed on organic matter and is motile.

MOLLUSKS
Molluscs (British spelling) or mollusks (American spelling) are animals belonging to phylum Mollusca. The word mollusc is derived from the French mollusque, which originated from the Latin molluscus, meaning thin-shelled, from mollis, soft. The scientific study of molluscs is known as malacology. There are around 100,000 extant species within the phylum with an estimated 70,000 extinct species. They range widely in size from micromolluskan snails and clams to larger organisms such as the Colossal Squid, believed to be the world's largest invertebrate. Molluscs are typically divided into ten taxonomic classes, of which two are entirely extinct. Class Cephalopoda molluscs such as squid, cuttlefish and octopus are among the most neurologically-advanced of all invertebrates.

The majority of mollusc species live in marine environments, and many of them are found intertidally, in the shallow subtidal and on the continental shelf. Pelagic species of octopus and squid live throughout the water column of the ocean, and some species of clam and limpet live in the abyssal depths of the oceans around hot hydrothermal vents. However, not all molluscs are marine: the bivalve and gastropod classes include freshwater species, and some gastropods (the land snails and slugs) live on land.

A number of species of molluscs are valued by humans as seafood or decorative shells, pearls and mother of pearl. Edible species of mollusks include numerous species of clams, mussels, oysters, scallops, marine snails, land snails, squid and octopus.

== FORMULAS ==

FINDING THE BASE
B = P/R

FINDING THE RATE
R = P/B

FINDING THE PERCENTAGE
P = B x R

Talinum
Talinum is a genus of herbaceous succulent plants in the family Portulacaceae whose common names include fameflower and flameflower. Several species bear edible leaves, and Talinum fruticosum is widely grown in tropical regions as a leaf vegetable. Talinum paniculatum is grown as an ornamental plant. Talinum species triangulare possess unique nutritive potential.

Relative Loudness
The two basic dynamic indications in music are:

p or piano, meaning "soft." f or forte, meaning "loud" or "strong" also it can mean "deep". More subtle degrees of loudness or softness are indicated by:

mp, standing for mezzo-piano, meaning "moderately soft" and mf, standing for mezzo-forte, meaning "moderately loud". Beyond f and p, there are also ff, standing for "fortissimo", and meaning "very loud" and pp, standing for "pianissimo", and meaning "very soft". To indicate even more eolto pianissimo (although in Italian the last expression is not correct). ppp has also been designated "pianissimo possibile".

Note Velocity in terms of Dynamic's relative to Logic Pro 8 and other digital music software.A few pieces contain dynamic designations with more than three fs (sometimes called "fortondoando") or ps. The Norman Dello Joio Suite for Piano ends with a crescendo to a ffff, and Tchaikovsky indicated a bassoon solo pppppp in his Pathétique symphony and ffff in passages of his 1812 Overture and the 2nd movement of his 5th symphony. ffff is also found in a prelude by Rachmaninoff, op.3-2. Shostakovich even went as loud as fffff in his fourth symphony. Gustav Mahler, in the third movement of his Seventh Symphony, gives the violins a marking of fffff, along with a footnote directing 'pluck so hard that the strings hit the wood.' On another extreme, Carl Nielsen, in the second movement of his Symphony No. 5, marked a passage for woodwinds a diminuendo to ppppp. Another more extreme dynamic is in György Ligeti's Devil's Staircase Etude, which has at one point a ffffff and progresses to a fffffff.

Dynamic indications are relative, not absolute. mp does not indicate an exact level of volume, it merely indicates that music in a passage so marked should be a little louder than p and a little quieter than mf. Interpretations of dynamic levels are left mostly to the performer; in the Barber Piano Nocturne, a phrase beginning pp is followed by a diminuendo leading to a mp marking. Another instance of performer's-discretion in this piece occurs when the left hand is shown to crescendo to a f, and then immediately after marked p while the right hand plays the melody f. It has been speculated that this is used simply to remind the performer to keep the melody louder than the harmonic line in the left hand. For some music notation programs, there might be default MIDI key velocity values associated with these indications, but more sophisticated programs allow users to change these as needed.

Sudden Changes
Sforzando notationSforzando (or sforzato), indicates a strong, sudden accent and is abbreviated as sf, sfz or fz. The notation fp (or sfp) indicates a sforzando followed immediately by piano. One particularly noteworthy use of this dynamic is in the second movement of Joseph Haydn's Surprise Symphony. Rinforzando, rfz (literally "reinforcing") indicates that several notes, or a short phrase, are to be emphasized.

Gradual Changes
In addition, there are words used to indicate gradual changes in volume. The two most common are crescendo, sometimes abbreviated to cresc., meaning "get gradually louder"; and decrescendo or diminuendo, sometimes abbreviated to decresc. and dim. respectively, meaning "get gradually softer". Signs sometimes referred to as "hairpins"[citation needed] are also used to stand for these words. If the lines are joined at the left, then the indication is to get louder; if they join at the right, the indication is to get softer. The following notation indicates music starting moderately loud, then becoming gradually louder and then gradually quieter.

Hairpins are usually written below the staff, but are sometimes found above, especially in music for singers or in music with multiple melody lines being played by a single performer. They tend to be used for dynamic changes over a relatively short space of time, while cresc., decresc. and dim. are generally used for dynamic changes over a longer period. For long stretches, dashes are used to extend the words so that it is clear over what time the event should occur. It is not necessary to draw dynamic marks over more than a few bars, whereas word directions can remain in force for pages if necessary.

For quicker changes in dynamics, molto cresc. and molto dim. are often used, where the molto means a lot. Similarly, for slow changes poco a poco cresc. or cresc. poco a poco and poco a poco dim. or dim. poco a poco are used, where poco a poco translates as bit by bit.

Words indicating changes of dynamics al niente: to nothing; fade to silence calando: becoming smaller crescendo: becoming louder da niente: from nothing; out of silence decrescendo or diminuendo: becoming softer in rilievo or (très) en dehors: in relief; indicates that a particular instrument or part is to play louder than the others so as to stand out over the ensemble perdendo or perdendosi: losing volume, fading into nothing, dying away morendo: dying away marcato: stressed, pronounced sotto voce: soft, subtle

History The Renaissance composer Giovanni Gabrieli was one of the first to indicate dynamics in music notation, but dynamics were used sparingly by composers until the late 18th century. Bach used the terms piano, più piano, and pianissimo (written out as words), and in some cases it may be that ppp was considered to mean pianissimo in this period.

During the Baroque period, the use of terraced dynamics was common. This meant a sudden change from full to soft, with no crescendo or decrescendo. The terraced dynamic was used for musical effect, to create an echo effect: a passage is played forte, then repeated piano as an echo. However, a major reason for the use of terraced dynamics is that the harpsichord, which was the principal keyboard instrument of the period, was incapable of gradations of volume. The harpsichord can be played either loud or soft, but not in between.

The fact that the harpsichord could play only terraced dynamics, and the fact that composers of the period did not mark gradations of dynamics in their scores, has led to the "somewhat misleading suggestion that baroque dynamics are 'terraced dynamics'," writes Robert Donington. In fact, baroque musicians constantly varied dynamics. "Light and shade must be constantly introduced... by the incessant interchange of loud and soft," wrote Johann Joachim Quantz in 1752.

In the Romantic period, composers greatly expanded the vocabulary for describing dynamic changes in their scores. Where Haydn and Mozart specified six levels (pp to ff), Beethoven used also ppp and fff (the latter less frequently), and Brahms used a range of terms to describe the dynamics he wanted. In the slow movement of the trio for violin, waldhorn and piano (Opus 40), he uses the expressions ppp, molto piano, and quasi niente to express different qualities of quiet.

Edward Cullen (Twilight)
Edward Cullen (né Edward Anthony Masen) is a fictional character from Stephenie Meyer's Twilight series. He features in the books Twilight, New Moon, Eclipse and Breaking Dawn, as well as the Twilight film, and the as yet unfinished novel Midnight Sun - a re-telling of the events of Twilight from Edward's perspective. Edward is a vampire who, over the course of the Twilight series, falls in love with, marries, and has a child with Bella Swan, a human teenager who later chooses to become a vampire also. In the 2008 Twilight film, Edward is played by actor Robert Pattinson.

Twilight
In Twilight, Edward meets Bella Swan, a human girl whose thoughts he is unable to read, and whose blood smells overwhelmingly sweet to him.He fights a growing attraction to her, but after saving her life on several occasions, succumbs and eventually falls in love with her. Edward admits to Bella that he is a vampire, and that although he retains the physical body of a seventeen-year-old, he was actually born on June 20, 1901. His adoptive father, Carlisle Cullen, transformed him into a vampire in 1918 to prevent him from dying in the Spanish influenza epidemic in Chicago, Illinois. Carlisle instilled in him a sense of morality uncommon in most vampires, and central to his way of life is the refusal to consider humans as food.

However, Edward constantly warns Bella against being with him, perceiving her life to be at risk if she continues to associate with him. Bella's love and confidence in Edward's restraint cause her to ignore his warnings, even after she becomes the target of another vampire, James. Unlike the Cullen family, who are "vegetarian" vampires (committed to only feeding on animals), James regularly feeds on humans and will not stop until he drinks Bella's blood. With his family's help, Edward is able to save Bella from James' predations, but the question of how to assure Bella's continued safety remains an open one.

New Moon
In New Moon, Edward’s fears for Bella’s safety intensify when she cuts her finger and is almost attacked by his brother Jasper. In an attempt to protect her, he convinces her that he no longer loves her, and moves away with his family, leaving Bella heartbroken. Edward finds it difficult to live without Bella, and becomes severely depressed at the prospect of an infinitely long and meaningless life. After he mistakenly learns from his sister Rosalie that Bella has committed suicide, Edward attempts to convince a group of Italian vampires, the Volturi, to kill him. Together with his sister Alice, Bella rushes to Italy and stops Edward before the Volturi can destroy him.

Edward explains why he left, and apologizes to Bella. She eventually forgives him entirely, and they continue with their relationship as though Edward had never left, with the exception that Bella has ties that cannot be broken with a werewolf named Jacob Black. Bella successfully seeks his family’s support on turning her into a vampire. While Edward is furious at the prospect, he later agrees to change her himself if she agrees to marry him first.

Eclipse
In Eclipse, Bella agrees to marry Edward on the condition he will make love to her while she is still human. Edward eventually relents and agrees, on the stipulation it will only occur after they are married. The plot is driven by the machinations of the vampire Victoria, who, seeking revenge for the death of her mate James, is hunting Bella and creating new vampires to build an army. A grudging truce is made between the Cullens and the Native-American werewolf pack led by Sam Uley and Jacob Black, a friend of Bella's who was there for her when Edward broke her heart. However, the truce is endangered when Bella realizes Jacob means more to her than she thought. Ultimately, Edward accepts that Bella cares for Jacob and successfully destroys Victoria, and Bella acknowledges that Edward is the most important person in her life. Edward tells Bella that they may attempt making love before they get married, as he realizes that she spends too much of her life trying to please other people. However, she refuses his offer and says that she will do everything the right way: marriage, making love, and then becoming a vampire.

Breaking Dawn
Breaking Dawn sees Edward and Bella marry. Bella becomes pregnant on their honeymoon, and the rapid growth of the half-human, half-vampire fetus swiftly impacts on Bella’s health. Edward tries to coerce her into having an abortion in order to save her own life. However, Bella feels a bond with her unborn child and insists on giving birth. Edward comes to feel love for the baby as well, after he hears its thoughts and learns that the baby loves Bella in return. Bella nearly dies giving birth in an emergency c-section, but Edward successfully delivers his daughter and then injects Bella's heart with his venom, healing her wounds by turning her into an immortal vampire. During Bella's painful transformation, Jacob imprints on their baby daughter, Renesmee.

After a vampire named Irina mistakes Renesmee for an immortal vampire child—a creation forbidden in the vampire world—the Volturi arrive to destroy the Cullens. Edward stands with Bella and their allies to convince the Volturi that Renesmee is not an immortal child and poses no threat to their existence. Once the Volturi leave, Edward and Bella feel free to live their lives in peace with their daughter.

Bella Swan
Isabella "Bella" Marie Swan (later Isabella Marie Cullen) is a fictional character and the protagonist of the Twilight series, written by Stephenie Meyer. The Twilight series, which consists of the novels Twilight, New Moon, Eclipse, and Breaking Dawn, is primarily narrated from Bella's point of view.

In the novels, Bella, after moving to her father's house in Forks, Washington, meets the mysterious Cullen family and falls into a deep love with Edward Cullen. However, she soon discovers the truth behind their strange habits: the family is a coven of vampires. Desperate not to lose him, Bella vows to stay with Edward, even if it means turning into a vampire herself, despite Edward's wishes. In an effort to keep her safe, he leaves the town of Forks. Jacob Black, a werewolf from the Quileute tribe and the son of Bella's father's best friend, comforts her in that time and Bella falls in love with him as well.

Swine Flu
Swine influenza (also called swine flu, hog flu and pig flu) refers to influenza caused by those strains of influenza virus, called swine influenza virus (SIV), that usually infect (is endemic in) pigs.As of 2009 these strains are all found in Influenza C virus and the subtypes of Influenza A virus known as H1N1, H1N2, H3N1, H3N2, and H2N3. Swine influenza is common in pigs in the midwestern United States (and occasionally in other states), Mexico,

Canada, South America, Europe (including the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Italy), Kenya, Mainland China, Taiwan, Japan and other parts of eastern Asia.

Transmission of swine influenza virus from pigs to humans is not common and does not always cause human influenza, often only resulting in the production of antibodies in the blood. The meat of the animal poses no risk of transmitting the virus when properly cooked. If transmission does cause human influenza, it is called zoonotic swine flu. People who work with pigs, especially people with intense exposures, are at increased risk of catching swine flu. In the mid-20th century, identification of influenza subtypes became possible, this allows accurate diagnosis of transmission to humans. Since then, fifty confirmed transmissions have been recorded, Rarely, these strains of swine flu can pass from human to human. In humans, the symptoms of swine flu are similar to those of influenza and of influenza-like illness in general, namely chills, fever, sore throat, muscle pains, severe headache, coughing, weakness and general discomfort.

The 2009 flu outbreak in humans, known as "swine flu", is due to a new strain of influenza A virus subtype H1N1 that contains genes closely related to swine influenza.The origin of this new strain is unknown. However, the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) reports that this strain has not been isolated in pigs.This strain can be transmitted from human to human,and causes the normal symptoms of influenza.

Pigs can become infected with human influenza, and this appears to have happened during the 1918 flu pandemic and the 2009 flu outbreak.

Classification
Of the three genera of influenza viruses that cause human flu, two also cause influenza in pigs, with Influenzavirus A being common in pigs and Influenzavirus C being rare. Influenzavirus B has not been reported in pigs. Within Influenzavirus A and Influenzavirus C, the strains found in pigs and humans are largely distinct, although due to reassortment there have been transfers of genes among strains crossing swine, avian, and human species boundaries.

Influenza C
Influenza C viruses infect both humans and pigs, but do not infect birds.Transmission between pigs and humans have occurred in the past.For example, influenza C caused small outbreaks of a mild form of influenza amongst children in Japan,and California.Due to its limited host range and the lack of genetic diversity in influenza C, this form of influenza does not cause pandemics in humans.

Influenza A
Swine influenza is known to be caused by influenza A subtypes H1N1,H1N2,H3N1,H3N2,and H2N3.In pigs, three influenza A virus subtypes (H1N1, H3N2, and H1N2) are the most common strains worldwide.In the United States, the H1N1 subtype was exclusively prevalent among swine populations before 1998; however, since late August 1998, H3N2 subtypes have been isolated from pigs. As of 2004, H3N2 virus isolates in US swine and turkey stocks were triple reassortants, containing genes from human (HA, NA, and PB1), swine (NS, NP, and M), and avian (PB2 and PA) lineages.

The Circulatory system
The circulatory system is an organ system that transports nutrients (such as amino acids and electrolytes), gases, hormones, blood cells, nitrogen waste products, etc. to and from cells in the body to help fight diseases and help stabilize body temperature and pH to maintain homeostasis. This system may be seen strictly as a blood distribution network, but some consider the circulatory system as composed of the cardiovascular system, which distributes blood, and the lymphatic system, which distributes lymph. While humans, as well as other vertebrates, have a closed cardiovascular system (meaning that the blood never leaves the network of arteries, veins and capillaries), some invertebrate groups have an open cardiovascular system. The most primitive animal phyla lack circulatory system. The lymphatic system, on the other hand, is an open system.

The main components of the human circulatory system are the heart, the blood, and the blood vessels. The circulatory system includes: the pulmonary circulation, a "loop" through the lungs where blood is oxygenated; and the systemic circulation, a "loop" through the rest of the body to provide oxygenated blood. An average adult contains five to six quarts (roughly 4.7 to 5.7 liters) of blood, which consists of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Also, the digestive system works with the circulatory system to provide the nutrients the system needs to keep the heart pumping.

Two types of fluids move through the circulatory system: blood and lymph. The blood, heart, and blood vessels form the cardiovascular system. The lymph, lymph nodes, and lymph vessels form the lymphatic system. The cardiovascular system and the lymphatic system collectively make up the circulatory system.

Plants vs. Zombies
Plants vs. Zombies

Steam header Developer(s) PopCap Games Publisher(s) PopCap Games Designer(s) George Fan Engine PopCap Games Framework Version 1.2.0.1065 (July 28, 2009) Platform(s) Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, Xbox Live Arcade, Nintendo DS, iPhone Release date(s) May 5, 2009 Genre(s) Tower defense Mode(s) Single-player Rating(s) ESRB: E10+ Media Download Input methods Mouse Plants vs. Zombies is a tower defense video game developed and published by PopCap Games for Windows, Mac OS X and iPhone OS.[1][2] It was released on May 5, 2009. An Xbox 360 version is reported to be in development, and was announced at Casual Connect in July 2009.

Contents [hide] 1 Gameplay 2 Development 2.1 Audio 3 Reception 4 References 5 External links

Gameplay Plants vs. Zombies screenshotPlants vs. Zombies sees players placing different types of plants, such as repeaters, potato mines, peashooters, cattails, hypno-shrooms and many others, each with their own unique offensive or defensive capabilities, across the front lawn, back lawn, and roof of a house in order to stop a horde of zombies from devouring the brains of the residents. The playing field is divided into a number of horizontal tracks, and in general, although there are exceptions, a zombie will only move towards the player's house along one track, and plants can only attack or defend against zombies in the track they are planted in. In the game's initial levels, if the zombie reaches the player's house, a one-shot tool (such as a lawn mower) can be used to completely wipe out zombies in that track, but the tool will not be restored until the next level. Zombies, except in special cases, will start to devour any plant in their way before continuing towards the house.

The player starts with a limited number of seed packs and seed pack slots that they can use during most levels. New seed packs are gained by completing levels, while the number of slots can be increased through purchases with in-game money. At the start of a level, the player is shown the various types of zombies to expect and given the opportunity to select which seed packs to take into the level. In order to plant a seed, the player must have collected a specific amount of sunlight. Sunlight is generated by plants which provide sunlight at regular intervals, or is automatically generated regularly for the player during daytime levels. Seed packs also have a short time delay before the same seed can be planted again. Several plants are nocturnal, having a lower sunlight cost and are ideal for nighttime levels, but will remain asleep during daytime levels unless startled by specific varieties of plants. In the "back yard" levels that includes a swimming pool, seeds must be planted atop lily pads on water spaces, while on the roof levels, all seeds must be planted in clay pots. The various plant abilities range from firing projectiles at zombies, turning zombies against each other, quickly exploding and wiping out an area of zombies, and slowing down zombies through a high defensive value. Certain plants are highly effective against specific types of zombies, such as a magnet-shroom that can remove a bucket being used for defense from a zombie's head.

The zombies also come in a number of types that have different attributes, in particular speed, damage tolerance, and abilities. As the player progresses in the game, the zombies will include those wearing make-shift armor, those that are able to jump or fly over plants, and even a Thriller-inspired zombie that is able to summon more zombies from the ground.[3] In each level, zombies will approach the house randomly except at special points where the player will be inundated with a "huge wave" of zombies; a meter on screen shows an approximate timeline for the level so the player can prepare for these waves.

In some levels, the player will be provided with a random one-shot seed pack, with no sunlight requirement, at regular intervals, and the player must figure out how best to survive with the random seeds given. In another mode, the player can engage in "zombie bowling", using special plants to mow down advancing zombies.

Killing zombies and finishing the levels will earn the player money that can be used at Crazy Dave's store to buy new seed packs and other bonuses. The game also features extra modes that are unlockable as the player progresses through the game's main Adventure mode. These include an endless survival mode, a puzzle mode and a selection of minigames which include zombie-themed versions of other PopCap games like Bejeweled and Insaniquarium. The game also features a "zen garden", where players can care for plants they acquire from fallen zombies during gameplay. Plants stored here produce money for the player as long as they are provided with items they ask for, such as water and plant food. The in-game store also carries items that help with the zen garden. The version available through Steam also features 12 achievements.

Development Plants vs. Zombies director George Fan intended on balancing the game between a "gritty" game and a "sickeningly cute" game. Strong strategic elements were included to appeal to the hardcore crowd, while he kept it simple without requiring players go through too many tutorials to appeal to a more casual crowd. He was inspired to make it a tower defense game after both thinking of a more defense-oriented version of a previous title of his, Insaniquarium as well as playing some Warcraft III tower defense mods. When looking at the towers in Warcraft III, he felt that plants would make good towers. Another inspiration came in the form of the card game Magic: The Gathering, though few elements made it into the game. He wanted to bring something new to the genre with Plants vs. Zombies, and he found common tower defense gameplay elements such as "juggling" and "mazing" to be too awkward, causing him to use the five and six lane set-ups that were used in the final version.

He included elements from Magic: The Gathering while teaching his girlfriend, Laura Shigihara, who composed the music for the game, how to play the card game, showing her how one can customize their decks. That inspired him to include the seed packets as opposed to a conveyor belt that produced randomly selected plants, due to the complexity of this system. Various members of PopCap Games contributed to the development of Plants vs. Zombies through an internal forum where they gave feedback. Another influence on Plants vs. Zombies besides Warcraft III and Insaniquarium was Tapper, crediting the use of five lanes to this game.

The developers focused on the Adventure mode for the first year of development, but programmer Tod Semple finished his development tasks ahead of schedule. Afterward, he was looking for something to do, and began work on minigame ideas. The Puzzle mode had similar origins; Vasebreaker and I, Zombie came from single-level minigames, but after playing them to tweak them, he found he was addicted to them. Fan found it impressive how well-designed they were, stating that while they were using the same plants and the same zombies, they were reinventions of the game mechanics. Fan worried that the minigame and puzzle modes may distract from the main game, so to keep players focused on the Adventure mode, he required that they beat it before they could move onto these modes. However, this was changed due to comments from beta testers that they would like to try these modes out sooner. The developers allowed players to play a few of the stages from these modes in the middle of Adventure mode. Fan stated that it's a common perception amongst players that the Adventure mode is 90% of the game, while the rest of the game is merely additional content. He hoped that players would appreciate the post-game content. Another mode is the Survivor mode, which included an Endless mode. After players were getting to the highest level in only three hours, Fan decided to make it more difficult, adding powerful zombies at the 30th level.

Fan stated that every game he worked on had only him designing the prototype, adding that he used to draw a lot before he made games, where he made pixel art. The final designs of the zombies and the first plants are similar to how they were initially. After searching for an artist, they discovered Rich Werner, who Fan thought clicked with what he intended for the design. He attributed the intrigue of the design to its animation scheme; Tod Semple suggested that they animate it in Flash and export it into the game. Fan worried that this would look like it was cut out from paper, and would resemble South Park too much, but was satisfied in the end, attributing this to Semple and Werner's talents.

Plants vs. Zombies was originally much like Insaniquarium in that it involved nurturing the plants by watering them and growing grass, but the developers found it to be tedious. It was originally called "Weedlings", but this concept was scrapped after the developers realized that there were far too many plant-growing games on the market. One of the critical changes to the game was the lowering of the price of Sunflowers from 100 to 50, as those inexperienced to the genre would spend their sun power on Pea Shooters and inevitably lose. While it required that the game be rebalanced, Fan found it worth it.Another inspiration for Plant vs. Zombie's mechanics comes from the film Swiss Family Robinson. Fan watched the film while he worked on the game, specifically mentioning a scene where the family defends themselves against pirates. He cited two things that made the scene exciting - the traps they lay down, and watching enemies fall into them. This was the inspiration for the Potato Mine, stating that it was satisfying to watch a zombie step on the mine, being defeated and covered in mashed potatoes.

Fan was most proud of the Tall Nut, Torchwood, and the Cob Cannon plants. He explained that the Tall Nut has character, citing its "determined gaze" and how it sheds a single tear when hurt. Laura Shigihara could not stand to see this, and protected it with a protective item called a Pumpkin. He felt that the Torchwood required players to think of how plants interacted with each other. The Cob Cannon went through many design changes, but Fan was happy with the final design.[4][5] Another favourite plant of Fan's was the Squash, due to how well it explained its purpose, to squash things.[7] A plant similar to the defensive item Umbrella Leaf, which would be planted above other plants to protect them from airborne zombies. However, it was difficult to visualize their positions.

An early zombie design that was scrapped.They wanted to bring back the aliens from Insaniquarium, but in the end were changed to zombies, which players could react to more easily because of how slowly they moved. His favourite zombie was the Pole-Vaulting Zombie, due to the hilarity involved when a player encounters it for the first time, using a specific example where a player tries to block it with the Wall-Nut, only to have the zombie jump over it. The developers intended to make sure the zombies were not just more powerful versions of earlier zombies, trying to find interesting designs and interesting ways for the players to defend against them. An example of one zombie that did not make the cut was a zombie walking a zombie dog, which was invulnerable because it was too short to be hit. Once the zombie was defeated, the dog would go crazy and charge forward. Because this did not enhance the gameplay enough, and Fan worried players would not get it well enough.

Plants vs. Zombies uses many cultural references in its names of stages and others. Two of the mini-games, "Zombiquarium" and "Beghouled", take their names from two other PopCap games, Insaniquarium and Bejeweled respectively.One of the zombies is a dancing zombie, resembling Michael Jackson from the music video "Thriller".Some Plants vs. Zombies advertisements parody controversial Evony ads, showing a drooling zombie instead of a voluptuous woman.

A planned name was Lawn of the Dead, a pun on the title of the George Romero zombie film Dawn of the Dead. Due to legal reasons it was changed to Plants vs. Zombies.[7] It spent three years in development, and was released for the PC on 5 May, 2009.[5] Since it was released, it has been announced for multiple platforms, including the Xbox 360's Xbox Live Arcade digital distribution service and the iPhone.[11][12]

[edit] Audio The soundtrack for Plants vs. Zombies was composed by Laura Shigihara. It borrows elements from the pop music genre, as well as console chiptunes. Before the inception of Plants vs. Zombies, Fan asked Shigihara if she would like to compose the music for his next title after following her for some years. She accepted, owing to his creativity. Shigihara described the music as "macabre, yet goofy." Using the night stage as an example, she used a combination of "Big Band" and swing beats with "several haunting and serious melodies". The songs "Loonboon" and "Brainiac Maniac" were written towards the end of production. She stated that these were reactionary songs that she wrote to fit the feel of the game after having played through it twice. She tried to make the game have a Danny Elfman feel to it, while mixing in melodic tunes and funky beats. She describes a song early in the game, which uses marching band percussion and swing beats. She described another one which used techno beats with organic sounds.[13]

The song "Loonboon" was inspired by their cat which they named Metroid. She explained that the stage she was composing for was frantic, so she watched Metroid as he ran around the house, jumping off walls and playing with his toy mouse. "Brainiac Maniac" was inspired by older Capcom games, specifically those in the Mega Man series, describing their songs as melodic and complex. She was inspired to make the Plants vs. Zombies music video by her desire to make a theme song for the game. She specifically chose the Sunflower to be the one singing by wanting to have it communicating with the zombies. She later suggested that it be made into a funny flash video, and Rich Werner and Tod Semple, an artist and programmer respectively from PopCap came down and worked on it. Once it was completed after two weeks of work, the PopCap marketing team enjoyed it enough that they used it as a marketing tool.[6] There are no plans to release the soundtrack as a stand-alone item, but Shigihara stated that she wishes to do it, so she thinks there is a good chance of it.

structure of atmosphere
Structure of the atmosphere Principal layers Layers of the atmosphere (not to scale)Earth's atmosphere can be divided into five main layers. These layers are mainly determined by whether temperature increases or decreases with altitude. From lowest to highest, these layers are:

Troposphere The troposphere begins at the surface and extends to between 7 km (23,000 ft) at the poles and 17 km (56,000 ft) at the equator, with some variation due to weather. The troposphere is mostly heated by transfer of energy from the surface, so on average the lowest part of the troposphere is warmest and temperature decreases with altitude. This promotes vertical mixing (hence the origin of its name in the Greek word "τροπή", trope, meaning turn or overturn). The troposphere contains roughly 80%[citation needed] of the mass of the atmosphere. The tropopause is the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere.

Stratosphere The stratosphere extends from the tropopause to about 51 km (32 mi; 170,000 ft). Temperature increases with height, which restricts turbulence and mixing. The stratopause, which is the boundary between the stratosphere and mesosphere, typically is at 50 to 55 km (31 to 34 mi; 160,000 to 180,000 ft). The pressure here is 1/1000th sea level.

Mesosphere The mesosphere extends from the stratopause to 80–85 km (50–53 mi; 260,000–280,000 ft). It is the layer where most meteors burn up upon entering the atmosphere. Temperature decreases with height in the mesosphere. The mesopause, the temperature minimum that marks the top of the mesosphere, is the coldest place on Earth and has an average temperature around −100 °C (−148.0 °F; 173.1 K).

Thermosphere Temperature increases with height in the thermosphere from the mesopause up to the thermopause, then is constant with height. The temperature of this layer can rise to 1,500 °C (2,730 °F), though the gas molecules are so far apart that temperature in the usual sense is not well defined. The International Space Station orbits in this layer, between 320 and 380 km (200 and 240 mi). The top of the thermosphere is the bottom of the exosphere, called the exobase. Its height varies with solar activity and ranges from about 350–800 km (220–500 mi; 1,100,000–2,600,000 ft).

Exosphere The outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere extends from the exobase upward. Here the particles are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of km without colliding with one another. Since the particles rarely collide, the atmosphere no longer behaves like a fluid. These free-moving particles follow ballistic trajectories and may migrate into and out of the magnetosphere or the solar wind. The exosphere is mainly composed of hydrogen and helium. [edit] Other layers Within the five principal layers determined by temperature are several layers determined by other properties.

The ozone layer is contained within the stratosphere. In this layer ozone concentrations are about 2 to 8 parts per million, which is much higher than in the lower atmosphere but still very small compared to the main components of the atmosphere. It is mainly located in the lower portion of the stratosphere from about 15–35 km (9.3–22 mi; 49,000–110,000 ft), though the thickness varies seasonally and geographically. About 90% of the ozone in our atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere.

The ionosphere, the part of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation, stretches from 50 to 1,000 km (31 to 620 mi; 160,000 to 3,300,000 ft) and typically overlaps both the exosphere and the thermosphere. It forms the inner edge of the magnetosphere. It has practical importance because it influences, for example, radio propagation on the Earth. It is responsible for auroras.

The homosphere and heterosphere are defined by whether the atmospheric gases are well mixed. In the homosphere the chemical composition of the atmosphere does not depend on molecular weight because the gases are mixed by turbulence.[3] The homosphere includes the troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere. Above the turbopause at about 100 km (62 mi; 330,000 ft) (essentially corresponding to the mesopause), the composition varies with altitude. This is because the distance that particles can move without colliding with one another is large compared with the size of motions that cause mixing. This allows the gases to stratify by molecular weight, with the heavier ones such as oxygen and nitrogen present only near the bottom of the heterosphere. The upper part of the heterosphere is composed almost completely of hydrogen, the lightest element. The planetary boundary layer is the part of the troposphere that is nearest the Earth's surface and is directly affected by it, mainly through turbulent diffusion. During the day the planetary boundary layer usually is well-mixed, while at night it becomes stably stratified with weak or intermittent mixing. The depth of the planetary boundary layer ranges from as little as about 100 m on clear, calm nights to 3000 m or more during the afternoon in dry regions.

The average temperature of the atmosphere at the surface of Earth is 14 °C (57 °F; 287 K)[4] or 15 °C (59 °F; 288 K)[5], depending on the reference.