User talk:ZacharyJamesWilson

So In reading through these definitions, as well as characteristics we learned that, Ganja (see Marawana) is the the "Mothers House". (see Gynoecium) It has DNA bonding properties, (see chromosome) Its a Flower, a plant, not a cash crop. (despite how its miss-viewed and misused.) Each plant is one of a kind and a one and only (see extant). We have made and still make hybrids. ( google cross breeding, hybrids, and sexual reproduction) Dogs, Cats, People, We search for someone to create a better version of ourselves. To pass on our history, legacy, morals, society and structure.

"Should be know but ill say it, life has its own divine structure, its a hybrid, a perfect world as it has stood the tests of time. hurricanes, tornados, even an ice age. Still stands and always will."

It will not warp you. ( see stamen) marijuana contains no stamen. Math an division is used for plants and fungi etc. (Humans an machines use it to, " a pipe a simple machine" So machines can process Ganja as well.) It has a carpel that has a a mark of disgrace associated with a particular circumstance, quality, or person. (see sigma) So it tell you why it does not like you, or what wrong you have done. Is this opening your mind to the possibilities of this drug as a cure! (well i must go on.)

Ganja which contain an ova or eggs. That can divide to give rise to a being already created. While keeping you balanced by containing no stamen. Its carpel bonds to your DNA type via chromosomes. (Perfect for anyone. like proactive i assume.) The mitochondria is no "chon" at all; In fact it can not be due to the stamen it does not possess. There is chemical energy within the mitochondria, such as in ourselves.

The Adenosine triphospate contains a multi tasking nucleotide, That is used in cells and coenzymes that contains a genetically bond with our DNA. (see cofactor.) Its monophyletic descended from a common evolutionary ancestor or ancestral group, esp. one not shared with any other group. It contains Chromatin. (see Chromatin.) So it can strengthen our genetic structure as well. (These are the facts. I didn't write them.) Im sure there are many more pros then cons to instate this movement.
 * These proteins are commonly enzymes and cofactors can be considered "helper molecules" that assist in biochemical transformations.

Only through the legalization of this plant can we press on with, bio chemical transformation, Healing of minds, Bodies, and maybe even the soul. The proof is in the paper, the words here are mine. All i did was heed from the info you provided me via dictionary, or was it mother? - Zachary James Wilson

"land of the free love it or leave it!" "Whose With Me!"

Cannabis (drug) "Marijuana" redirects here. For other uses, see Marijuana (disambiguation). For the plant genus, see Cannabis. For other uses of cannabis, see Industrial and Personal Uses of Cannabis. Cannabis

Dried flowers from the Cannabis sativa plant. Note the visible trichomes (commonly known as "crystals"), which contain large quantities of THC, CBD and other cannabinoids. Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae Phylum: Magnoliophyta Class: Magnoliopsida Order: Rosales Family: Cannabaceae Genus: Cannabis Species: C. sativa Binomial name Cannabis sativa L.[1] Cannabis indica Lam. (putative)[1] Cannabis, also known as marijuana[2], marihuana,[3], ganja (from Sanskrit: गांजा gañjā, meaning "hemp"), among many other namesa[›], pot, or weed, refers to any number of preparations of the Cannabis plant intended for use as a psychoactive drug. The most common form of cannabis used as a drug is the dried herbal form. The typical herbal form of cannabis consists of the flowers and subtending leaves and stalks of mature pistillate or female plants. The resinous form of the drug is known as hashish (or merely as 'hash').[4] The major psychoactive chemical compound in cannabis is Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (commonly abbreviated as THC). At least 66 other cannabinoids are also present in cannabis, including cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN) and tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV) among many others, which are believed to result in different effects than those of THC alone.[5] Cannabis use has been found to have occurred as long ago as the third millennium B.C.[6] In modern times, the drug has been used for recreational, religious or spiritual, and medicinal purposes. The United Nations (UN) estimated that in 2004 about 4% of the world's adult population (162 million people) use cannabis annually, and about 0.6% (22.5 million) use it on a daily basis.[7] The possession, use, or sale of cannabis preparations containing psychoactive cannabinoids became illegal in most parts of the world in the early twentieth century. Since then, some countries have intensified the enforcement of cannabis prohibition, while others have reduced it.

History

The use of cannabis, at least as fiber, has been shown to go back at least 10,000 years in Taiwan.[8] Má (Pinyin pronunciation), the Chinese expression for hemp, is a pictograph of two plants under a shelter.[9] Cannabis is indigenous to Central and South Asia.[10] Evidence of the inhalation of cannabis smoke can be found as far back as the 3rd millennium B.C., as indicated by charred cannabis seeds found in a ritual brazier at an ancient burial site in present day Romania.[6] Cannabis is also known to have been used by the ancient Hindus of India and Nepal thousands of years ago. The herb was called ganjika in Sanskrit (गांजा/গাঁজা ganja in modern Indic languages).[11][12] The ancient drug soma, mentioned in the Vedas as a sacred intoxicating hallucinogen, was sometimes associated with cannabis.[13] Cannabis was also known to the ancient Assyrians, who discovered its psychoactive properties through the Aryans.[14] Using it in some religious ceremonies, they called it qunubu (meaning "way to produce smoke"), a probable origin of the modern word "cannabis".[15] Cannabis was also introduced by the Aryans to the Scythians and Thracians/Dacians, whose shamans (the kapnobatai—"those who walk on smoke/clouds") burned cannabis flowers to induce a state of trance.[16] Members of the cult of Dionysus, believed to have originated in Thrace (Bulgaria, Greece and Turkey), are also thought to have inhaled cannabis smoke. In 2003, a leather basket filled with cannabis leaf fragments and seeds was found next to a 2,500- to 2,800-year-old mummified shaman in the northwestern Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China.[17][18]

Cannabis sativa from Vienna Dioscurides, 512 A.D. Cannabis has an ancient history of ritual use and is found in pharmacological cults around the world. Hemp seeds discovered by archaeologists at Pazyryk suggest early ceremonial practices like eating by the Scythians occurred during the 5th to 2nd century B.C., confirming previous historical reports by Herodotus.[19] One writer has claimed that cannabis was used as a religious sacrament by ancient Jews and early Christians[20] due to the similarity between the Hebrew word "qannabbos" ("cannabis") and the Hebrew phrase "qené bósem" ("aromatic cane"). It was used by Muslims in various Sufi orders as early as the Mamluk period, for example by the Qalandars.[21] A study published in the South African Journal of Science showed that "pipes dug up from the garden of Shakespeare's home in Stratford upon Avon contain traces of cannabis."[22] The chemical analysis was carried out after researchers hypothesized that the "noted weed" mentioned in Sonnet 76 and the "journey in my head" from Sonnet 27 could be references to cannabis and the use thereof.[23] Cannabis was criminalized in the United States in 1937 due to Marihuana Tax Act of 1937. Several theories try to explain why it is illegal in most Western societies. Jack Herer, a cannabis legalization activist and writer, argues that the economic interests of the paper and chemical industry were a driving force to make it illegal.[24][25][26] Another explanation is that beneficial effects of hemp would lower the profit of pharmaceutical companies which therefore have a vital interest to keep cannabis illegal.[27] Those economic theories were criticized for not taking social aspect into account. The illegalization was rather a result of racism directed to associate American immigrants of Mexican and African descent with cannabis abuse.[28] Forms Cannabis (herbal form)

Dried Cannabis flowers in its herbal form. The terms cannabis or marijuana generally refer to the dried flowers and subtending leaves and stems of the female cannabis plant. This is the most widely consumed form, containing 3% to 22% THC.[29][30] In contrast, cannabis strains used to produce industrial hemp contain less than 1% THC and are thus not valued for recreational use.[31] Hashish

Hashish Main article: Hashish Hashish (also spelled hasheesh), hashisha, or simply hash is a concentrated resin produced from the flowers of the female cannabis plant. Hash can often be more potent than marijuana and can be smoked or chewed.[32] It varies in color from black to golden brown depending upon purity. According to both the "Talk to FRANK" website and the UKCIA website, "Soap Bar", "perhaps the most common type of hash found in the UK", can contain turpentine, tranquillizers, boot polish, henna and animal faeces - amongst several other things.[33][34] One small study of five soap-bar samples seized by UK Customs in 2001 found huge adulteration by many toxic substances, including soil, glue, engine oil and animal faeces.[35] Hash oil Main article: Hash oil Hash oil, or honey oil, is an essential oil extracted from the cannabis plant through the use of various solvents. It has a high proportion of cannabinoids (ranging from 40–90%).[36] This oil is also used in the process of making a variety of cannabis foods. Kief Main article: Kief Kief is a powder made from trichomes removed from the leaves and flowers of cannabis plants. Kief can also be compressed to produce one form of hashish, or consumed in powder form.[37] Residue

Residue collected from a pipe Because of THC's adhesive properties, a sticky residue builds up inside the paraphernalia when cannabis is smoked. It has tar-like properties but still contains THC as well as other cannabinoids. This buildup still has all the psychoactive properties of cannabis but is more difficult to smoke due to the discomfort caused to the throat and lungs. Cannabis users typically only smoke residue when cannabis is unavailable. Glass may be water-steamed at a low temperature prior to scraping in order to make the residue easier to remove.[38] Potency According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), "the amount of THC present in a cannabis sample is generally used as a measure of cannabis potency."[39] The three main forms of cannabis products are the herb (marijuana), resin (hashish), and oil (hash oil). The UNODC states that marijuana often contains 5% THC content, resin "can contain up to 20% THC content", and that "Cannabis oil may contain more than 60% THC content.".[39] A scientific study published in 2000 in the Journal of Forensic Sciences (JFS) found that the potency (THC content) of confiscated cannabis in the United States (US) rose from "approximately 3.3% in 1983 and 1984", to "4.47% in 1997". It also concluded that "other major cannabinoids (i.e., CBD, CBN, and CBC)" (other chemicals in cannabis) "showed no significant change in their concentration over the years".[40] More recent research undertaken at the University of Mississippi's Potency Monitoring Project[41] has found that average THC levels in cannabis samples between 1975 and 2007 have increased from 4% in 1983 to 9.6% in 2007. Australia's National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre (NCPIC) states that the buds (flowers) of the female cannabis plant contain the highest concentration of THC, followed by the leaves. The stalks and seeds have "much lower THC levels".[42] The UN states that the leaves can contain ten times less THC than the buds, and the stalks one hundred times less THC.[39] According to the "Talk to FRANK" (UK) website: "Recently, there has been an increased availability of strong herbal cannabis, containing on average 2-3 times the amount of the active compound, tetrahydrocannabinol or THC, as compared to the traditional imported ‘weed’. This strong cannabis includes:‘sinsemilla’ (a bud grown in the absence of male plants and which has no seeds); ‘homegrown’; ‘skunk’, which has a characteristic strong smell; and imported ‘netherweed’... ...it may not be possible to tell whether a particular sample of 'skunk' or ‘homegrown’ or ‘sinsemilla’ will have a higher potency than an equal amount of traditional herbal cannabis Of course, "homegrown", "netherweed" and "sinsemilla" are not always "strong". The selection of "skunk" strains generally are, although not every strain of cannabis with a "characteristic strong smell" can be accurately named "skunk". "Traditional herbal cannabis" or "weed", has on the whole, always been subjectively "strong" and thus FRANK leaves his website uncited.[34] Routes of administration

A Volcano vaporizer. The balloon (top) is filled with vapors that are eventually inhaled.

Cannabis joints are potentially the most harmful method of consumption.

A narrow, screened single-toke utensil, such as the midwakh (shown here) or kiseru, provides small, low-temperature servings, protecting against health damage. Main article: Cannabis consumption Cannabis is consumed in many different ways, most of which involve inhaling smoke. The most commonly used include screened bowls, bubblers (small pipes with water chambers), bongs, one-hitters, chillums, paper-wrapped joints and tobacco-leaf-wrapped blunts. Local methods differ by the preparation of the cannabis plant before use, the parts of the cannabis plant which are used, and the treatment of the smoke before inhalation. A vaporizer heats herbal cannabis to 365–410 °F (185–210 °C), which causes the active ingredients to evaporate into a gas without burning the plant material (the boiling point of THC is 392°F (200°C) at 0.02mmHg pressure, and somewhat higher at standard atmospheric pressure).[43] A lower proportion of toxic chemicals are released than by smoking, although this may vary depending on the design of the vaporizer and the temperature at which it is set. This method of consuming cannabis produces markedly different effects than smoking due to the flash points of different cannabinoids; for example, CBN has a flash point of 212.7°C[44] and would normally be present in smoke but might not be present in vapor. As an alternative to smoking, cannabis may be consumed orally. However, the cannabis or its extract must be sufficiently heated or dehydrated to cause decarboxylation of its most abundant cannabinoid, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA), into psychoactive THC.[45] Cannabinoids can be leached from cannabis plant matter using high-proof spirits (often grain alcohol) to create a tincture, often referred to as Green Dragon. Cannabis can also be consumed as a tea. THC is lipophilic and only slightly water soluble (with a solubility of 2.8 mg per liter),[46] so tea is made by first adding a saturated fat to hot water (i.e. cream or any milk except skim) with a small amount of cannabis, green or black tea leaves and honey or sugar, steeped for approximately 5 minutes. Effects

Main short-term physical effects of cannabis. Main article: Effects of cannabis Cannabis has psychoactive and physiological effects when consumed. The minimum amount of THC required to have a perceptible psychoactive effect is about 10 micrograms per kilogram of body weight.[47] Aside from a subjective change in perception and, most notably, mood, the most common short-term physical and neurological effects include increased heart rate, lowered blood pressure, impairment of short-term episodic memory, working memory, psychomotor coordination, and concentration.[48] Long-term effects are less clear.[49][50] Classification Main article: Psychoactive effects While many drugs clearly fall into the category of either stimulant, depressant, or hallucinogen, cannabis exhibits a mix of all properties, perhaps leaning the most towards hallucinogen or psychedelic properties, though with other effects quite pronounced as well. Though THC is typically considered the primary active component of the cannabis plant, various scientific studies have suggested that certain other cannabinoids like CBD may also play a significant role in its psychoactive effects.[8][51][52]

Medical use Main article: Medical cannabis Cannabis used medically does have several well-documented beneficial effects. Among these are: the amelioration of nausea and vomiting, stimulation of hunger in chemotherapy and AIDS patients, lowered intraocular eye pressure (shown to be effective for treating glaucoma), as well as general analgesic effects (pain reliever).b[›] Less confirmed individual studies also have been conducted indicating cannabis to be beneficial to a gamut of conditions running from multiple sclerosis to depression. Synthesized cannabinoids are also sold as prescription drugs, including Marinol (dronabinol in the United States and Germany) and Cesamet (nabilone in Canada, Mexico, The United States and The United Kingdom).b[›] Currently, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has not approved smoked marijuana for any condition or disease in the United States, largely because good quality scientific evidence for its use from U.S. studies is lacking; however, a major barrier to acquiring the necessary evidence is the lack of federal funding for this kind of research.[53] Regardless, thirteen states have legalized cannabis for medical use.[54][55] Canada, Spain, The Netherlands and Austria have also legalized cannabis for medicinal use.[56][57] Long-term effects Main article: Long-term effects of cannabis The smoking of cannabis is the most harmful method of consumption, as the inhalation of smoke from organic materials can cause various health problems.[58] By comparison, studies on the vaporization of cannabis found that subjects were "only 40% as likely to report respiratory symptoms as users who do not vaporize, even when age, sex, cigarette use, and amount of cannabis consumed are controlled."[59] Another study found vaporizers to be "a safe and effective cannabinoid delivery system."[60][61]

Cannabis is ranked one of the least harmful drugs by a study published in the UK medical journal, The Lancet.[62] While a study in New Zealand of 79 lung-cancer patients suggested daily cannabis smokers have a 5.7 times higher risk of lung cancer than non-users,[63] another study of 2252 people in Los Angeles failed to find a correlation between the smoking of cannabis and lung, head or neck cancers.[64] These effects have been attributed to the well documented anti-tumoral properties of cannabinoids, specifically tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol. Some studies have also found that moderate cannabis use may protect against head and neck cancers,[65] as well as lung cancer.[66] Some studies have shown that cannabidiol may also be useful in treating breast cancer.[67] Cannabis use has been assessed by several studies to be correlated with the development of anxiety, psychosis, and depression.[68][69] Indeed, a 2007 meta-analysis estimated that cannabis use is statistically associated, in a dose-dependent manner, to an increased risk in the development of psychotic disorders, including schizophrenia.[70] No causal mechanism has been proven, however, and the meaning of the correlation and its direction is a subject of debate that has not been resolved in the scientific community. Some studies assess that the causality is more likely to involve a path from cannabis use to psychotic symptoms rather than a path from psychotic symptoms to cannabis use,[71] while other studies assess the opposite direction of the causality, or hold cannabis to only form parts of a "causal constellation", while not inflicting mental health problems that would not have occurred in the absence of the cannabis use.[72][73] Though cannabis use has at times been associated with stroke, there is no firmly established link, and potential mechanisms are unknown.[74] Similarly, there is no established relationship between cannabis use and heart disease, including exacerbation of cases of existing heart disease.[75] Though some fMRI studies have shown changes in neurological function in long term heavy cannabis users, no long term behavioral effects after abstinence have been linked to these changes.[76] Adulterants Adulterants in cannabis are less common than in other drugs of abuse. Chalk (in the Netherlands) and glass particles (in the UK) have been used at times to make cannabis appear to be higher quality.[77][78][79] Increasing the weight of hashish products in Germany with lead caused lead intoxication in at least 29 users.[80] In the Netherlands two chemical analogs of Sildenafil (Viagra) were found in adulterated marijuana.[81] Legal status

Cannabis propaganda sheet from 1935 Main article: Legality of cannabis See also: Drug prohibition, Drug liberalization, and AB 390 Since the beginning of the 20th century, most countries have enacted laws against the cultivation, possession, or transfer of cannabis for recreational use. These laws have impacted adversely on the cannabis plant's cultivation for non-recreational purposes, but there are many regions where, under certain circumstances, handling of cannabis is legal or licensed. Many jurisdictions have lessened the penalties for possession of small quantities of cannabis, so that it is punished by confiscation and sometimes a fine, rather than imprisonment, focusing more on those who traffic the drug on the black market. In some areas where cannabis use has been historically tolerated, some new restrictions have been put in place, such as the closing of cannabis coffee shops near the borders of the Netherlands,[91] closing of coffee shops near secondary schools in the Netherlands and crackdowns on "Pusher Street" in Christiania, Copenhagen in 2004.[92][93] Some jurisdictions use free voluntary treatment programs and/or mandatory treatment programs for frequent known users. Simple possession can carry long prison terms in some countries, particularly in East Asia, where the sale of cannabis may lead to a sentence of life in prison or even execution. Price The price or street value of cannabis varies strongly by region and area. In addition, some dealers may sell potent buds at a higher price.[94] In the United States, cannabis is overall the #4 value crop, and is #1 or #2 in many states including California, New York and Florida, averaging $3,000/lb.[95][96] It is believed to generate an estimated $36 billion market.[97] Most of the money is spent not on growing and producing but on smuggling the supply to buyers. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime claims in its 2008 World Drug Report that typical U.S. retail prices are 10-15 dollars per gram (approximately $290 to $430 per ounce). Street prices in North America are known to range at about $150 to $250 per ounce.[98] The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction reports that typical retail prices in Europe for cannabis varies from 2€ to 14€ per gram, with a majority of European countries reporting prices in the range 4–10€.[99] In the United Kingdom, a cannabis plant has an approximate street value of £300.[100] Truth serum Cannabis was used as a truth serum by the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), a US government intelligence agency formed during World War II. In the early 1940s, it was the most effective truth drug developed at the OSS labs at St. Elizabeths Hospital; it caused a subject "to be loquacious and free in his impartation of information."[101] In May 1943, Major George Hunter White, head of OSS counter-intelligence operations in the US, arranged a meeting with Augusto Del Gracio, an enforcer for gangster Lucky Luciano. Del Gracio was given cigarettes spiked with THC concentrate from cannabis, and subsequently talked openly about Luciano's heroin operation. On a second occasion the dosage was increased such that Del Gracio passed out for two hours.[101] Breeding and cultivation

Maturing female Cannabis plant Main article: Cannabis cultivation It is often claimed by growers and breeders of herbal cannabis that advances in breeding and cultivation techniques have increased the potency of cannabis since the late 1960s and early '70s, when THC was first discovered and understood. However, potent seedless marijuana such as "Thai sticks" were already available at that time. Sinsemilla (Spanish for "without seed") is the dried, seedless inflorescences of female cannabis plants. Because THC production drops off once pollination occurs, the male plants (which produce little THC themselves) are eliminated before they shed pollen to prevent pollination. Advanced cultivation techniques such as hydroponics, cloning, high-intensity artificial lighting, and the sea of green method are frequently employed as a response (in part) to prohibition enforcement efforts that make outdoor cultivation more risky. These intensive horticultural techniques have made it possible to grow strains with fewer seeds and higher potency. It is often cited that the average levels of THC in cannabis sold in United States rose dramatically between the 1970s and 2000, but such statements are likely skewed because of undue weight given to much more expensive and potent, but less prevalent samples.[102]

"Skunk" refers to several named strains of potent cannabis, grown through selective breeding and often hydroponics. It is a cross-breed of Cannabis sativa and C. indica (although other strains of this mix exist in abundance). Skunk cannabis potency ranges usually from 6% to 15% and rarely as high as 20%. The average THC level in coffee shops in the Netherlands is about 18–19%.[103] Skunk can sometimes be incorrectly mistaken for all types of female herbal cannabis.[104] After revisions to cannabis rescheduling in the UK, the government moved cannabis back from a class C to a class B drug. A purported reason was the appearance of high potency cannabis.[105] It is noted that one of the earliest strains of skunk to appear was that of "SKUNK #1", which has been inbred since 1978.[106] High potency herbal cannabis has been around potentially, even longer. A Dutch double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over study examining male volunteers aged 18–45 years with a self-reported history of regular cannabis use concluded that smoking of cannabis with high THC levels (marijuana with 9–23% THC), as currently sold in coffee shops in the Netherlands, may lead to higher THC blood-serum concentrations. This is reflected by an increase of the occurrence of impaired psychomotor skills, particularly among younger or inexperienced cannabis smokers, who do not adapt their smoking style to the higher THC content.[107] High THC concentrations in cannabis was associated with a dose-related increase of physical effects (such as increase of heart rate, and decrease of blood pressure) and psychomotor effects (such as reacting more slowly, being less concentrated, making more mistakes during performance testing, having less motor control, and experiencing drowsiness). It was also observed during the study that the effects from a single joint at times lasted for more than eight hours. Reaction times remained impaired five hours after smoking, when the THC serum concentrations were significantly reduced, but still present. The researchers suggested that THC may accumulate in blood-serum when cannabis is smoked several times per day. Another study showed that consumption of 15 mg of Δ9-THC resulted in no impairment to learning whatsoever occurring over a three-trial selective reminding task after two hours. In several tasks, Δ9-THC increased both speed and error rates, reflecting “riskier” speed–accuracy trade-offs.[108]

chromosome |ˈkrōməˌsōm| noun Biology a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes. Each chromosome consists of a DNA double helix bearing a linear sequence of genes, coiled and recoiled around aggregated proteins (histones). Their number varies from species to species: humans have 22 pairs plus the two sex chromosomes (two X chromosomes in females, one X and one Y in males). During cell division, each DNA strand is duplicated, and the chromosomes condense to become visible as distinct pairs of chromatids joined at the centromere. Bacteria and viruses lack a nucleus and have a single chromosome without histones. DERIVATIVES chromosomal |ˌkrōməˈsōməl| adjective ORIGIN late 19th cent.: coined in German from Greek khrōma ‘color’ + sōma ‘body.’

haploid |ˈhapˌloid| Genetics adjective (of a cell or nucleus) having a single set of unpaired chromosomes. Compare with diploid. • (of an organism or part) composed of haploid cells. noun a haploid organism or cell. DERIVATIVES haploidy noun ORIGIN early 20th cent.: from Greek haploos ‘single’ + -oid.

gametophyte |gəˈmētəˌfīt| noun Botany (in the life cycle of plants with alternating generations) the gamete-producing and usually haploid phase, producing the zygote from which the sporophyte arises. It is the dominant form in bryophytes. DERIVATIVES gametophytic |gəˌmētəˈfitik| adjective

 carpel |ˈkärpəl| noun Botany the female reproductive organ of a flower, consisting of an ovary, a stigma, and usually a style. It may occur singly or as one of a group. DERIVATIVES carpellary |-ˌlerē| adjective ORIGIN mid 19th cent.: from French carpelle or modern Latin carpellum, from Greek karpos ‘fruit.’

The gymnosperms are a group of seed-bearing plants that includes conifers, cycads, Ginkgo and Gnetales. The term "gymnosperm" comes from the Greek word gymnospermos (γυμνόσπερμος), meaning "naked seeds", after the unenclosed condition of their seeds (called ovules in their unfertilized state). Their naked condition stands in contrast to the seeds or ovules of flowering plants (angiosperms) which are enclosed during pollination. Gymnosperm seeds develop either on the surface of scale- or leaf-like appendages of cones, or at the end of shortes, cyresses, and relatives), followed by cycads, Gnetales (Gnetum, Ephedra and Welwitschia), and Ginkgo (a single living species).

The flowering plants or angiosperms (Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta) are the most diverse group of land plants. The flowering plants and the gymnosperms are the only extant groups of seed plants. The flowering plants are distinguished from other seed plants by a series of apomorphies, or derived characteristics. The ancestors of flowering plants diverged from gymnosperms around 245–202 million years ago, and the first flowering plants known to exist are from 140 million years ago. They diversified enormously during the Lower Cretaceous and became widespread around 100 million years ago, but replaced conifers as the dominant trees only around 60-100[citation needed] million years ago. Taxon For the journal, see Taxon (journal).

African elephants form a widely-accepted taxon, the genus Loxodonta A taxon (plural: taxa) is a group of (one or more) organisms, which a taxonomist adjudges to be a unit. Usually a taxon is given a name and a rank, although neither is a requirement. Defining what belongs or does not belong to such a taxonomic group is done by a taxonomist. It is not uncommon for one taxonomist to disagree with another on what exactly belongs to a taxon, or on what exact criteria should be used for inclusion. Taxonomists sometimes make a distinction between "good" (or natural) taxa and others that are "not good" (or artificial). Today it is common to define a good taxon as one that reflects presumptive evolutionary (phylogenetic) relationships. But this is not mandatory. A taxon may be given a formal name, a scientific name. Such a scientific name is governed by one of the Nomenclature Codes, which sets out rules to determine which scientific name is correct for that particular grouping. Advocates of phylogenetic nomenclature, using cladistic methods, do require taxa to be monophyletic, consisting of all descendants of some ancestor. They generally do not refer to taxa as their basic unit, but to "clades", a clade being a special form of taxon. However, even in traditional nomenclature, few taxonomists of our time would establish new taxa that they know to be paraphyletic.[1] A famous example of a widely accepted taxon that is not also a clade is the "Reptilia". Contents [hide] 1 Definition 2 Ranks 3 See also 4 References Definition The Glossary of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (1999) defines[2] a	▪	"taxon, (pl. taxa), n. A taxonomic unit, whether named or not: i.e. a population, or group of populations of organisms which are usually inferred to be phylogenetically related and which have characters in common which differentiate (q.v.) the unit (e.g. a geographic population, a genus, a family, an order) from other such units. A taxon encompasses all included taxa of lower rank (q.v.) and individual organisms. [...]" But there are other definitions. Ranks A taxon can be assigned a rank, usually (but not necessarily) when it is given a formal name. The rank of a given taxon is not necessarily fixed, but can be altered later by another (or the same) taxonomist. "Phylum" applies formally to any biological domain, but traditionally it was always used for animals, whereas "Division" was traditionally often used for plants, fungi, etc.

The hierarchy of biological classification's eight major taxonomic ranks. Intermediate minor rankings are not shown. A prefix is used to indicate a ranking of lesser importance. The prefix super- indicates a rank above, the prefix sub- indicates a rank below. In zoology the prefix infra- indicates a rank below sub-. For instance: Superclass Class Subclass Infraclass Rank is relative, and restricted to a particular systematic schema. For example, liverworts have been grouped, in various systems of classification, as a family, order, class, or division (phylum). The use of a narrow set of ranks is challenged by users of cladistics; for example, the mere 10 ranks traditionally used between animal families (governed by the ICZN) and animal phyla (usually the highest relevant rank in taxonomic work) often cannot adequately represent the evolutionary history as more about a lineage's phylogeny becomes known. In addition, the class rank is quite often not an evolutionary but a phenetical and paraphyletic group and as opposed to those ranks governed by the ICZN, can usually not be made monophyletic by exchanging the taxa contained therein. This has given rise to phylogenetic taxonomy and the ongoing development of the PhyloCode, which is to govern the application of names to clades.

Extant taxon Extant is a term commonly used in biology to refer to taxa (such as species, genera or families) that are still in existence (living). The term extant contrasts with extinct. For example, Brandt's Cormorant is an extant species, while the Spectacled Cormorant is an extinct species. Likewise, of the group of molluscs known as the cephalopods, there are approximately 600 extant species and 7500 extinct species.[1]  Spectacled Cormorant

The Spectacled Cormorant or Pallas's Cormorant (Phalacrocorax perspicillatus[1]) is an extinct marine bird of the cormorant family of seabirds that inhabited Bering Island and possibly other places in the Komandorski Islands. A presumed prehistoric record from Amchitka Island, Alaska (Siegel-Causey et al., 1991), is based on misidentification of Double-crested Cormorant remains (Olson, 2005).

Old illustration of a Spectacled Cormorant The species was first identified by Georg Steller in 1741 on Vitus Bering's disastrous second Kamchatka expedition. He described the bird as large, clumsy and almost flightless — though it was probably reluctant to fly rather than physically unable — and wrote "they weighed 12 – 14 pounds, so that one single bird was sufficient for three starving men." Though cormorants are normally notoriously bad-tasting, Steller says that this bird tasted delicious, particularly when it was cooked in the way of the native Kamtchadals, who encased the whole bird in clay and buried it and baked it in a heated pit.[2] Apart from the fact that it fed on fish, almost nothing else is known about this bird. The population declined quickly after further visitors to the area started collecting the birds for food and feathers, and their reports of profitable whaling grounds and large populations of Arctic Foxes and other animals with valuable pelts led to a massive influx of whalers and fur traders into the region; the last birds were reported to have lived around 1850 on Ariy Rock (Russian: Арий Камень[3]) islet, off the northwestern tip of Bering Island.

stamen |ˈstāmin| noun Botany the male fertilizing organ of a flower, typically consisting of a pollen-containing anther and a filament. ORIGIN mid 17th cent.: from Latin, literally ‘warp in an upright loom, thread.’ ▪	Stamen ▪	For the physician, see Stamen Grigorov. ▪		▪		▪	Stamens of an Hippeastrum with prominent anthers carrying pollen ▪	The stamen (plural stamina or stamens, from Latin stamen meaning "thread of the warp"  monophyletic |ˌmänōfīˈletik| adjective Biology (of a group of organisms) descended from a common evolutionary ancestor or ancestral group, esp. one not shared with any other group.

▪	Monophyly ▪		▪		▪	A monophyly ▪		▪	▪	▪	Comparison of phylogenetic groups, showing a monophyly (all descendants of the first reptiles), a paraphyly (descendants of reptiles, minus birds), and a polyphyly (warm-blooded animals: mammals and birds) ▪	In common cladistic usage, a monophyletic group is a taxon (group of organisms) which forms a clade, meaning that it consists of an ancestor and all its descendants. The term is synonymous with the uncommon term holophyly. It is contrasted with the terms paraphyly, which is a taxon consisting of an ancestor and some of its descendants, and polyphyly, which is a taxon that does not share a common ancestor. Monophyletic groups are characterized by shared derived characteristics (synapomorphies). ▪	However, this definition of the term took some time to be accepted. When the cladistic school of thought became mainstream in the 1960s, several alternative definitions were in use. Indeed, taxonomists sometimes used the term without defining it, leading to confusion in the early literature.[1] ▪		▪	Definitions ▪	On the broadest scale, definitions fall into two groups. ▪	The widest, and arguably[2] the semantically correct meaning of the word,[3] is any two or more groups sharing a common ancestor.[4] This very broad definition strips the term of scientific utility. Therefore, scientists today restrict the term to holophyletic groups only – that is, groups consisting of all the descendants of one (usually hypothetical) common ancestor.[1] However, when considering taxonomic groups such as genera and species, the most appropriate nature of their common ancestor is unclear. Assuming that it would be one individual or mating pair is unrealistic for species, which are by definition interbreeding populations.[5] ▪	However, using a broader definition, such as a species and all its descendants, doesn't really work to define a genus.[5] A satisfactory and comprehensive cladistic definition of a species or genus is in fact impossible, and reflects the impossibility of seamlessly impressing a gradualistic model of continual change over the 'quantum' Linnean model, where species have defined boundaries, and intermediaries between species cannot be accommodated.[6] ▪	Controversy ▪	This incompatibility with the Linnean model led to an initial rift, not entirely healed, between the cladistic and Linnean schools of thought. Extreme cladists challenged the validity of Linnean taxa such as the Reptilia. Because birds, although descended from reptiles, are not themselves considered to be reptiles, cladists demanded that the taxon Reptilia be dismantled: a request that taxonomists were unwilling to heed. This stand-off was eventually resolved to a degree by the construction of the term 'paraphyletic' to describe closely related groups which included most but not all of the descendants of a common ancestor.[4] ▪	However, the coining of this term led to yet more confusion. Some scientists considered paraphyletic groups to be monophyletic (as they shared a common ancestor), where others insisted that monophyletic should continue to refer only to holophyletic groups.[4] Another term, polyphyletic, fell outside of the definition of monophyly. A strict explanation of a paraphyletic group has not been published, but the consensus appears to be that paraphyletic groups consist of a monophyletic group, minus one smaller constituent clade – for instance "Reptiles minus birds". Polyphyletic groups can be thought of as a number of unrelated clades, for instance "warm blooded animals" = "birds plus mammals". Non-holophyletic groups are of little use for analysis of evolutionary processes, hence the calls for their "unnaming" - even though they are useful to scientists who are less concerned with the evolutionary past of groups.[4] Naming is also a problem for monophyletic groups: because the number of ancestors from which to root monophyletic groups is almost infinite, giving each clade a unique name is impossible[4] - as illustrated by the failed attempts to instigate a system called the Phylocode. Names obfuscate the really interesting part, which is the branching order, and are therefore of little utility to the cladist - at odds with the taxonomist, who since the time of Linnaeus has been naming species. Intermediate, and particularly fossil, taxa can be considered to fall 'just outside' a widely accepted taxon. For instance, Archaeopteryx appears more reptilian than bird – it has teeth and a number of other reptilian characteristics. But it also has feathers, which have traditionally been considered as an avian trait. It lacks a number of other traits shared by all birds, so can't fall within the bird clade. To reflect this phylogenetic proximity, it is termed a 'stem group bird' - i.e. it lies on a branch close to the lineage that led to true birds, as recognised by a taxonomist. This concept closes the gap between taxonomy and cladistics at a broader scale,[6] but is difficult to apply at a species-level resolution. ( plant life was here long before us, buy the consumption of a specific plant with Dna bonding traits, and history. 	▪	(I feel it has a lot to teach us, if we can only heed what she is saying.)

stigma |ˈstigmə| ▪	noun ( pl. stigmas or esp. in sense 2 stigmata |stigˈmätə; ˈstigmətə|) ▪	1 a mark of disgrace associated with a particular circumstance, quality, or person : the stigma of mental disorder | to be a nonreader carries a social stigma. ▪	2 ( stigmata) (in Christian tradition) marks corresponding to those left on Jesus’ body by the Crucifixion, said to have been impressed by divine favor on the bodies of St. Francis of Assisi and others. ▪	3 Medicine a visible sign or characteristic of a disease. ▪	• a mark or spot on the skin. ▪	4 Botany (in a flower) the part of a pistil that receives the pollen during pollination.  ovum |ˈōvəm| noun ( pl. ova |ˈōvə|) Biology a mature female reproductive cell, esp. of a human or other animal, that can divide to give rise (read below.) to an embryo usually only after fertilization by a male cell.

give rise to cause or induce to happen : decisions which give rise to arguments.  Chromosome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Human chromosome) Jump to: navigation, search For a non-technical introduction to the topic, see Introduction to genetics. A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and protein that is found in cells. It is a single piece of coiled DNA containing many genes, regulatory elements and other nucleotide sequences. Chromosomes also contain DNA-bound proteins, which serve to package the DNA and control its functions. The word chromosome comes from the Greek χρῶμα (chroma, color) and σῶμα (soma, body) due to their property of being very strongly stained by particular dyes.

Diagram of a duplicated and condensed metaphase eukaryotic chromosome. (1) Chromatid – one of the two identical parts of the chromosome after S phase. (2) Centromere – the point where the two chromatids touch, and where the microtubules attach. (3) Short arm. (4) Long arm. Chromosomes vary widely between different organisms. The DNA molecule may be circular or linear, and can be composed of 10,000 to 1,000,000,000[1] nucleotides in a long chain. Typically eukaryotic cells (cells with nuclei) have large linear chromosomes and prokaryotic cells (cells without defined nuclei) have smaller circular chromosomes, although there are many exceptions to this rule. Furthermore, cells may contain more than one type of chromosome; for example, mitochondria in most eukaryotes and chloroplasts in plants have their own small chromosomes. In eukaryotes, nuclear chromosomes are packaged by proteins into a condensed structure called chromatin. This allows the very long DNA molecules to fit into the cell nucleus. The structure of chromosomes and chromatin varies through the cell cycle. Chromosomes are the essential unit for cellular division and must be replicated, divided, and passed successfully to their daughter cells so as to ensure the genetic diversity and survival of their progeny. Chromosomes may exist as either duplicated or unduplicated—unduplicated chromosomes are single linear strands, whereas duplicated chromosomes (copied during synthesis phase) contain two copies joined by a centromere. Compaction of the duplicated chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis results in the classic four-arm structure (pictured to the right). Chromosomal recombination plays a vital role in genetic diversity. If these structures are manipulated incorrectly, through processes known as chromosomal instability and translocation, the cell may undergo mitotic catastrophe and die, or it may aberrantly evade apoptosis leading to the progression of cancer. In practice "chromosome" is a rather loosely defined term. In prokaryotes and viruses, the term genophore is more appropriate when no chromatin is present. However, a large body of work uses the term chromosome regardless of chromatin content. In prokaryotes DNA is usually arranged as a circle, which is tightly coiled in on itself, sometimes accompanied by one or more smaller, circular DNA molecules called plasmids. These small circular genomes are also found in mitochondria and chloroplasts, reflecting their bacterial origins. The simplest genophores are found in viruses: these DNA or RNA molecules are short linear or circular genophores that often lack structural proteins.

In cell biology, a mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in most eukaryotic cells.[1] These organelles range from 0.5 to 10 micrometers (μm) in diameter. Mitochondria are sometimes described as "cellular power plants" because they generate most of the cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), used as a source of chemical energy.[2] In addition to supplying cellular energy, mitochondria are involved in a range of other processes, such as signaling, cellular differentiation, cell death, as well as the control of the cell cycle and cell growth.[3] Mitochondria have been implicated in several human diseases, including mitochondrial disorders[4] and cardiac dysfunction,[5] and may play a role in the aging process. The word mitochondrion comes from the Greek μίτος or mitos, thread + χονδρίον or chondrion, granule. Several characteristics make mitochondria unique. The number of mitochondria in a cell varies widely by organism and tissue type. Many cells have only a single mitochondrion, whereas others can contain several thousand mitochondria.[6][7] The organelle is composed of compartments that carry out specialized functions. These compartments or regions include the outer membrane, the intermembrane space, the inner membrane, and the cristae and matrix. Mitochondrial proteins vary depending on the tissue and the species. In humans, 615 distinct types of proteins have been identified from cardiac mitochondria;[8] whereas in Murinae (rats), 940 proteins encoded by distinct genes have been reported.[9] The mitochondrial proteome is thought to be dynamically regulated.[10] Although most of a cell's DNA is contained in the cell nucleus, the mitochondrion has its own independent genome. Further, its DNA shows substantial similarity to bacterial genomes.[11]  Mitochondrion From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia In cell biology, a mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in most eukaryotic cells.[1] These organelles range from 0.5 to 10 micrometers (μm) in diameter. Mitochondria are sometimes described as "cellular power plants" because they generate most of the cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), used as a source of chemical energy.[2] In addition to supplying cellular energy, mitochondria are involved in a range of other processes, such as signaling, cellular differentiation, cell death, as well as the control of the cell cycle and cell growth.[3] Mitochondria have been implicated in several human diseases, including mitochondrial disorders[4] and cardiac dysfunction,[5] and may play a role in the aging process. The word mitochondrion comes from the Greek μίτος or mitos, thread + χονδρίον or chondrion, granule. Several characteristics make mitochondria unique. The number of mitochondria in a cell varies widely by organism and tissue type. Many cells have only a single mitochondrion, whereas others can contain several thousand mitochondria.[6][7] The organelle is composed of compartments that carry out specialized functions. These compartments or regions include the outer membrane, the intermembrane space, the inner membrane, and the cristae and matrix. Mitochondrial proteins vary depending on the tissue and the species. In humans, 615 distinct types of proteins have been identified from cardiac mitochondria;[8] whereas in Murinae (rats), 940 proteins encoded by distinct genes have been reported.[9] The mitochondrial proteome is thought to be dynamically regulated.[10] Although most of a cell's DNA is contained in the cell nucleus, the mitochondrion has its own independent genome. Further, its DNA shows substantial similarity to bacterial genomes.[11]  Adenosine triphosphate From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Adenosine-5'-triphosphate (ATP) is a multifunctional nucleotide used in cells as a coenzyme. It is often called the "molecular unit of currency" of intracellular energy transfer.[1] ATP transports chemical energy within cells for metabolism. It is produced by photophosphorylation and cellular respiration and used by enzymes and structural proteins in many cellular processes, including biosynthetic reactions, motility, and cell division.[2] One molecule of ATP contains three phosphate groups, and it is produced by ATP synthase from inorganic phosphate and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) or adenosine monophosphate (AMP). Metabolic processes that use ATP as an energy source convert it back into its precursors. ATP is therefore continuously recycled in organisms, with the human body turning over its own weight in ATP each day.[3] ATP is used as a substrate in signal transduction pathways by kinases that phosphorylate proteins and lipids, as well as by adenylate cyclase, which uses ATP to produce the second messenger molecule cyclic AMP. The ratio between ATP and AMP is used as a way for a cell to sense how much energy is available and control the metabolic pathways that produce and consume ATP.[4] Apart from its roles in energy metabolism and signaling, ATP is also incorporated into nucleic acids by polymerases in the processes of DNA replication and transcription. The structure of this molecule consists of a purine base (adenine) attached to the 1' carbon atom of a pentose sugar (ribose). Three phosphate groups are attached at the 5' carbon atom of the pentose sugar. It is the addition and removal of these phosphate groups that inter-convert ATP, ADP and AMP. When ATP is used in DNA synthesis, the ribose sugar is first converted to deoxyribose by ribonucleotide reductase. ATP was discovered in 1929 by Karl Lohmann,[5] but its correct structure was not determined until some years later. It was proposed to be the main energy-transfer molecule in the cell by Fritz Albert Lipmann in 1941.[6] It was first artificially synthesized by Alexander Todd in 1948.[7] Nucleotide From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search Nucleotides are molecules that, when joined together, make up the structural units of RNA and DNA. In addition, nucleotides play central roles in metabolism. In that capacity, they serve as sources of chemical energy (adenosine triphosphate and guanosine triphosphate), participate in cellular signaling (cyclic guanosine monophosphate and cyclic adenosine monophosphate), and are incorporated into important cofactors of enzymatic reactions (coenzyme A, flavin adenine dinucleotide, flavin mononucleotide, and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate).[1]

Cellular respiration, also known as 'oxidative metabolism', is one of the key ways a cell gains useful energy. It is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in organisms' cells to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products. The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions that involve the oxidation of one molecule and the reduction of another. Nutrients commonly used by animal and plant cells in respiration include glucose, amino acids and fatty acids, and a common oxidizing agent (electron acceptor) is molecular oxygen (O2). Bacteria and archaea can also be lithotrophs and these organisms may respire using a broad range of inorganic molecules as electron donors and acceptors, such as sulfur, metal ions, methane or hydrogen. Organisms that use oxygen as a final electron acceptor in respiration are described as aerobic, while those that do not are referred to as anaerobic[1]. The energy released in respiration is used to synthesize ATP to store this energy. The energy stored in ATP can then be used to drive processes requiring energy, including biosynthesis, locomotion or transportation of molecules across cell membranes.  Cofactor (biochemistry) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Coenzyme) Jump to: navigation, search

The succinate dehydrogenase complex showing several cofactors, including flavin, iron-sulfur centers and heme. A cofactor is a non-protein chemical compound that is bound to a protein and is required for the protein's biological activity. These proteins are commonly enzymes and cofactors can be considered "helper molecules" that assist in biochemical transformations. Cofactors can also be classified depending on how tightly they bind to an enzyme, with loosely-bound cofactors termed coenzymes and tightly-bound cofactors termed prosthetic groups. Some sources also limit the use of the term "cofactor" to inorganic substances.[1][2] An inactive enzyme, without the cofactor is called an apoenzyme, while the complete enzyme with cofactor is the holoenzyme.[3] Some enzymes or enzyme complexes require several cofactors. A good example is the multienzyme complex pyruvate dehydrogenase.[4] This enzyme complex at the junction of glycolysis and the citric acid cycle requires five organic cofactors and one metal ion : loosely bound thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), covalently bound lipoamide and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), and the cosubstrates nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) and coenzyme A (CoA) and a metal ion (Mg2+). Organic cofactors are often vitamins or are made from vitamins. Many contain the nucleotide adenosine monophosphate (AMP) as part of their structures, such as ATP, coenzyme A, FAD and NAD+. This common structure may reflect a common evolutionary origin as part of ribozymes in an ancient RNA world. It has been suggested that the AMP part of the molecule can be considered a kind a "handle" by which the enzyme can "grasp" the coenzyme to switch it between different catalytic centers.[5] Cellular respiration From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Cellular respiration in a typical eukaryotic cell. Cellular respiration, also known as 'oxidative metabolism', is one of the key ways a cell gains useful energy. It is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in organisms' cells to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products. The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions that involve the oxidation of one molecule and the reduction of another. Nutrients commonly used by animal and plant cells in respiration include glucose, amino acids and fatty acids, and a common oxidizing agent (electron acceptor) is molecular oxygen (O2). Bacteria and archaea can also be lithotrophs and these organisms may respire using a broad range of inorganic molecules as electron donors and acceptors, such as sulfur, metal ions, methane or hydrogen. Organisms that use oxygen as a final electron acceptor in respiration are described as aerobic, while those that do not are referred to as anaerobic[1]. The energy released in respiration is used to synthesize ATP to store this energy. The energy stored in ATP can then be used to drive processes requiring energy, including biosynthesis, locomotion or transportation of molecules across cell membranes. Contents [hide] •	1 Aerobic respiration ◦	1.1 Glycolysis ◦	1.2 Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate ◦	1.3 Citric acid cycle ◦	1.4 Oxidative phosphorylation •	2 Theoretical yields •	3 Fermentation •	4 Anaerobic Respiration •	5 See also •	6 References •	7 External links Aerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration (red arrows) is the main means by which both plants and animals utilize energy in the form of organic compounds that was previously created through photosynthesis (green arrow). Aerobic respiration requires oxygen in order to generate energy (ATP). Although carbohydrates, fats, and proteins can all be processed and consumed as reactant, it is the preferred method of pyruvate breakdown from glycolysis and requires that pyruvate enter the mitochondrion in order to be fully oxidized by the Krebs cycle. The product of this process is energy in the form of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate), by substrate-level phosphorylation, NADH and FADH2. Simplified reaction: C6H12O6 (aq) + 6 O2 (g) → 6 CO2 (g) + 6 H2O (l) ΔG = -2880 kJ per mole of C6H12O6 The negative ΔG indicates that the products of the chemical process store less energy than the reactants and the reaction can happen spontaneously; In other words, without an input of energy. The reducing potential of NADH and FADH2 is converted to more ATP through an electron transport chain with oxygen as the "terminal electron acceptor". Most of the ATP produced by aerobic cellular respiration is made by oxidative phosphorylation. This works by the energy released in the consumption of pyruvate being used to create a chemiosmotic potential by pumping protons across a membrane. This potential is then used to drive ATP synthase and produce ATP from ADP. Biology textbooks often state that 38 ATP molecules can be made per oxidised glucose molecule during cellular respiration (2 from glycolysis, 2 from the Krebs cycle, and about 34 from the electron transport system).[2] However, this maximum yield is never quite reached due to losses (leaky membranes) as well as the cost of moving pyruvate and ADP into the mitochondrial matrix and current estimates range around 29 to 30 ATP per glucose.[2] Aerobic metabolism is 19 times more efficient than anaerobic metabolism (which yields 2 mol ATP per 1 mol glucose). They share the initial pathway of glycolysis but aerobic metabolism continues with the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. The post glycolytic reactions take place in the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells, and in the cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells. Glycolysis Main article: Glycolysis Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that is found in the cytoplasm of cells in all living organisms and is anaerobic (that is, oxygen is not required). The process converts one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, and makes energy in the form of two net molecules of ATP. Four molecules of ATP per glucose are actually produced; however, two are consumed for the preparatory phase. The initial phosphorylation of glucose is required to destabilize the molecule for cleavage into two triose sugars. During the pay-off phase of glycolysis, four phosphate groups are transferred to ADP by substrate-level phosphorylation to make four ATP, and two NADH are produced when the triose sugars are oxidized. The overall reaction can be expressed this way: Glucose + 2 NAD+ + 2 Pi + 2 ADP → 2 pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 ATP + 2 H+ + 2 H2O Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate Main article: Pyruvate decarboxylation The pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl-CoA and CO2 by the Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, a cluster of enzymes—multiple copies of each of three enzymes—located in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells and in the cytosol of prokaryotes. In the process one molecule of NADH is formed per pyruvate oxidized, and 3 moles of ATP are formed for each mole of pyruvate. This step is also known as the link reaction, as it links glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. Citric acid cycle Main article: Citric acid cycle This is also called the Krebs cycle or the tricarboxylic acid cycle. When oxygen is present, acetyl-CoA is produced from the pyruvate molecules created from glycolysis. Once acetyl-CoA is formed, two processes can occur, aerobic or anaerobic respiration. When oxygen is present, the mitochondria will undergo aerobic respiration which leads to the Krebs cycle. However, if oxygen is not present, fermentation of the pyruvate molecule will occur. In the presence of oxygen, when acetyl-CoA is produced, the molecule then enters the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) inside the mitochondrial matrix, and gets oxidized to CO2 while at the same time reducing NAD to NADH. NADH can be used by the electron transport chain to create further ATP as part of oxidative phosphorylation. To fully oxidize the equivalent of one glucose molecule, two acetyl-CoA must be metabolized by the Krebs cycle. Two waste products, H2O and CO2, are created during this cycle. The citric acid cycle is an 8-step process involving 8 different enzymes. Throughout the entire cycle, acetyl-CoA changes into citrate, isocitrate, α-ketoglutarate, succinyl-CoA, succinate, fumarate, malate, and finally, oxaloacetate. The net energy gain from one cycle is 3 NADH, 1 FADH, and 1 ATP. Thus, the total amount of energy yield from one whole glucose molecule (2 pyruvate molecules) is 6 NADH, 2 FADH, and 2 ATP. Oxidative phosphorylation Main articles: Oxidative phosphorylation, Electron transport chain, Electrochemical gradient, and ATP synthase In eukaryotes, oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondrial cristae. It comprises the electron transport chain that establishes a proton gradient (chemiosmotic potential) across the inner membrane by oxidizing the NADH produced from the Krebs cycle. ATP is synthesised by the ATP synthase enzyme when the chemiosmotic gradient is used to drive the phosphorylation of ADP. The electrons are finally transferred to exogenous oxygen and, with the addition of two protons, water is formed. Chromatin is the complex combination of DNA and proteins that makes up chromosomes. It is found inside the nuclei of eukaryotic cells. It is divided between heterochromatin (condensed) and euchromatin (extended) forms.[1] [2] The major components of chromatin are DNA and histone proteins, although many other chromosomal proteins have prominent roles too. The functions of chromatin are to package DNA into a smaller volume to fit in the cell, to strengthen the DNA to allow mitosis and meiosis, and to serve as a mechanism to control expression and DNA replication. Chromatin contains genetic material-instructions to direct cell functions. Changes in chromatin structure are affected by chemical modifications of histone proteins such as methylation (DNA and proteins) and acetylation (proteins), and by non-histone, DNA-binding

unlocking the powers of the human mind
A mind is an instrument a tool for weighing, decisions, objects, etc; and its weight,size,etc is relevant to the mind and in mind. In your own mind, Not my mind. Cause are minds are not the same. Linked but not the same, each and every being is unique, as are our minds.

My Bad Example; What May feel heavy to you, may be light to me. Whats ugly to you, I can find beauty in.

The mind is a distributor, with no governor, no ruler, except yourself. Accept your minds. Your own minds. Your own visions your own dreams. Your own freedom, and let it ring.

Heaven And Hell
Satan Loves To Hate, Enjoys Giving Pain And Maybe Even Receiving It. God Loves To Hate The Ones Who Love To Bring Pain.

So They Both Love, And They Both Hate. They Are The Same. God=Satan And Satan=God

Good=Bad And Bad=Good

Example; The coffee was bad, cause it burnt my tongue. I would have never know pain without that coffee!

Get It Got It Good, I'll rest on these notes.