User talk:Zekooo2014

Abstract 3D printing is a paradigm changing technology in today’s world, which is bound to create seismic disruption in the manufacturing world. Scanning and printing are two parts of a 3D printing process. Different CAD scanners exist, and they are differentiated by means of method of light projection, scanner construction, and method of measurement. The 3D printing process consists of extruded material being cured by laser or ultraviolet rays. There are a large number of permutations in which 3D prints can be taken out, and the processes are primarily based on the property of the material to be fused – whether it is in solid, liquid or powder based.

Applications of 3D printing are of a wide variety, ranging from rapid prototyping, machinery for aircraft and automobiles, medical applications, architecture, enthusiast items and custom orders.

The technology has limitations in areas of pre-processing, during the process itself, and in post-processing. 3D printing is seeing rapid open-source innovation, which is set to change the way manufacturing and innovation are occurring in the world today.

Spawning manufacturing capability in the hands of everyone leaves the field open to mal-intent. Law and regulations need to evolve to tackle this new threat.

3D Printing

Introduction

It is not often that we see a revolution in front of our eyes and recognize it as such. When the steam engine was introduced to the world, there was opposition from the horse carriage owners. Computers and computerization faces opposition from manual labor. In the days to come, a revolutionary method of printing will render redundant the challenge of complexity. Welcome to the world of 3D printing. (Ehrenberg, 2013)

To begin with, it is essential to understand the method of printing so far. Till now, all printing was essentially ‘subtractive’ in nature. In essence, a big block of material was taken to start with, and then material removed from this block to create shapes and patterns. The cost of manufacturing would increase in direct proportion to the complexity of the final product. This was because increasingly intricate dies and cutting techniques would be required to cut or etch intricate grooves, holes or surfaces from the bigger block of material. (Ehrenberg, 2013)

3D printing, instead of being ‘subtractive’, is ‘additive’. This gives the process the additional moniker of being called ‘additive manufacturing’. The process entails addition of material, layer by layer, to take a final shape as desired by the manufacturer. Because we are adding instead of subtracting, the need for complex cuts entailed in ‘subtractive manufacturing’ is removed. If we have a workable three-dimensional image, suitable material to add layer upon layer, and a suitable printer, we could, in theory, print whatever we wanted in an ideal ‘do-it-yourself’ world. (Ehrenberg, 2013)

The roots of 3D printing can be traced back to the 1970s, when inkjet printing was devised. In 1984, a crucial jump was made from ink to material, and 3D printing was born. The pioneer of 3D printing was Charles Hall, who founded the company “3D Systems”, and invented the process of stereolithography (Rawsthorn, 2013). In 1992, stereolithography began to be used to create components layer by layer – giving rise to the promise of rapid prototyping. 1999 witnessed the first organ being implanted in human beings using 3D printing, when patients underwent urinary bladder augmentation at the Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medecine. In 2002, scientists made a fully working kidney using 3D printing technology. 2005 saw Dr Adrian Bowyer open the doors of 3D printing to the GNU, heralding open source innovation in 3D printing. The first selective laser sintering machine wa invented in 2006, paving the way of mass customisation of industrial parts. The first self replicating 3D printer, ‘RepRap’, came into being in 2008, and this led to a flurry of Do-It-Yourself co-creation services. The first person walked on a prosthetic 3D printed leg in 2008. The first blood vessel was printed in 2009. 2011 saw the world’s first 3D printed robotic aircraft by the University of Southampton, the first 3D printed car by Kor Ecologic, and 3D printing technology for gold and silver jewellery. 2012 saw the first prosthetic jaw being implanted onto an 83 year old woman. (Daly,2013)

The shape of things to come can be seen from news that the US space agency, NASA, plans to transport a 3D printer to space next year, as it would enable astronauts to manufacture mission critical components themselves, instead of depending upon a non-existent supply chain ( which till date meant – ‘ if you have the spare, replace; else, improvise). (BBC News, 2013)

The basic building blocks for a 3D printed object would be few. To begin with, a digitizer would be required, which would scan the object to be replicated, and create digital files for the same. These 3D digital files would then be required to be printed using a 3D printer. At present, 3D printers are expensive. Most printers currently can manage to print with plastic. However, industrial grade printers are able to print with more and more types of material. At the individual level, one can even get digitized files printed from firms that offer their services on the web. (PC World, 2013)

Technology behind 3D Printing

At the heart of 3D printing are two basic building blocks – 3D scanning and printing. We will take a look at these building blocks in greater detail.

3D Scanning

The digitizer is, in essence, a three dimensional scanner, that captures a 3D image of an object. Based upon the end user application, and with passage of time and development of technology, various methods of scanning have evolved. (D'Apuzzo, 2006)

3D scanners differ in their approach to the following parameters: the mode of light projection, the way the scanner is constructed, and method of measurement. The various options can be tabulated as in the table below (D'Apuzzo, 2006): -

Measurement type	Technology	System Surface measurement	Laser scanning	Fixed system Point measurement	Coded light projection	Moving system (Robot, CMM) Measurement of profiles	Interferometry	Hand held / hand operated Time of flight	Object moves (Rotating platform) Table 1: Options for 3D Scanning (D'Apuzzo, 2006) Both system and object move

The scanners can be a permutation of any of the measurement type, technology and system as delineated above. However, the common combinations for scanners are described below.

Laser Scanners mounted on CMM. Laser scanners mounted on CMM (‘coordinate measurement machines’) are common in industrial settings. Laser profilers are physically moved over the surface to be scanned, and they are capable of rapidly digitizing complex shapes. These profilers have the advantage of small size, accuracy, precision (in the order of microns) and a high data rate. (D'Apuzzo, 2006)

Portable Coded Light Projection Systems. The key feature of these systems is the source of illumination for measurement – different color-coded light. Light is projected onto the surface to be scanned, and measured with varying depths of field. The advantage over the laser-based systems is the greater amount of depth of field achievable, resulting in more detailed contours. Also, larger surfaces can be digitized. The disadvantage is that larger bandwidth and time is required for system setup, which can be partially offset by having a larger number of pre-disposed camera equipment set up around the object. (D'Apuzzo, 2006)

Desktop Solutions with Laser of Coded Light and Multi-Axis Platform. As 3D printing increases in usage, desktop solutions are increasing in ubiquity. When color-coded light is employed, relatively larger surfaces are scanned, and moving the object relative to the source of light facilitates the scanning process. In case of laser profiling, both the laser and the object move relative to each other. Desktop solutions have evolved to be fully automated for scanning relatively smaller objects. (D'Apuzzo, 2006)

Laser Point Measurement Systems where both Sensor and Object Move. These systems compose of laser spots directed on objects, and measured by a process of triangulation. The object and the laser move relative to each other. The main advantage in these systems is the saving in cost, while massive setup times are the main disadvantage. (D'Apuzzo, 2006)

Hand Operated/ Hand Held Laser Profilers or Point Measuring Systems. In hand operated/ hand held systems, the major advantage is the real-simultaneous scanning as well as viewing of the acquired data for corrections required if any. As a result, scanning is relatively faster than automated machines. In hand-operated systems, a robotic arm holding the laser profiler is moved by hand over the surface to be scanned. Hand held devices offer complete freedom of movement, and come with the added complexity of the requirement of a tracking device to detect the source of light which is hand held. This tracking mechanism can be based on laser (which is relatively expensive), electromagnetic imaging (a slower and lesser efficient process), or by imaging. (D'Apuzzo, 2006)

Dedicated Systems. Apart from the systems described above, which can scan different objects based on requirement, there are scanners for dedicated tasks. For dedicated systems, the movement patterns of the scanning systems are pre-defined. (D'Apuzzo, 2006)

Once a 3D scan is taken, it is converted to a file with information about each point of the surface. This file, known colloquially as an ‘STL file’, uses “Standard Tessellation Language” (Wong & Hernandez, 2012). It contains information about the three-dimensional coordinates of each point of the object, depicted in the form of triangles. The smaller the triangle, the closer is the translation of the physical parameters of the object into digital information. (Wong & Hernandez, 2012)

3D Printers

Once an object is scanned, the three dimensional data is to be printed using 3D printers. Various processes have evolved over a period of time for 3D printing, and can be mainly categorized based on the material used for the printing, viz liquid, solid or powder based. These processes can be summarized in the table below: -

Stereolithography. “Stereolithography (SL)” (Wong & Hernandez, 2012) was one of the first methods of 3D printing. The basic process used is that of “photo-polymerization” (Wong & Hernandez, 2012), wherein an ultraviolet ray of light is applied onto a liquid polymer, hardening it. The polymer is laid out in layers, as per the contours of the object to be printed, and the ultraviolet rays are applied onto it. The process may lead to defects of over-curing (where the edges do not harden correctly to reflect the actual shape) or of ‘scanned line shape’ (where the highly viscous resin, on hardening, reflect the path of the ultraviolet ray). Such defects get minimized with higher quality equipment, and progressively smaller dimensions of the ultraviolet ray, now running in the order of nanometers. (Wong & Hernandez, 2012)

3DP. “3DP” (Wong & Hernandez, 2012) is an MIT-licensed process, wherein a liquid binder is sprayed onto powder placed on a bed. The process is akin to desk jet printing, and is capable to fusing a large variety of polymers. (Wong & Hernandez, 2012)

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM). This process involves passing of polycarbonates and their variants through a machine, which melts the material and extrudes it in small dimensions. The process is relatively cheaper, as there is no need for chemical post-processing, there being no resins to cure. However, the process is more time consuming, and error-prone in reflection of the z-axis. Therefore, this process needs to be combined with another method for a better-polished final product. (Wong & Hernandez, 2012)

Prometal. This is a process where the liquid binder is applied to a steel powder. The steel powder is in a layer that is raised to a level suitable for application of the liquid binder. A process of ‘sintering’, using bronze or tungsten treats the layer. Once a layer is prepared, it is lowered, and another layer is raised for treatment. This process is used for making injection dies and tools, and is relatively more efficient than mainstream CNC machines. (Wong & Hernandez, 2012)

Selective Laser Sintering. This procss involves the application of a carbon dioxide beam onto a bed with polymers, which are fused as a result.Instead of polymers, metals can also be fused by this process, though they would require a binder to aid the fusing process.While the range of materials that can be fused using this process is an advantage, care needs to be taken to avoid oxidation. In addition, the system accuracy is dependent upon the particle size of the material being fused. (Wong & Hernandez, 2012)

Laminated Object Manufacturing. This process uses a combination of additive as well as subtractive processes. While additive processes (3D printing) is used to fuse polycarbonates using a carbon dioxide beam, the resultant material is also subjected to subtractive techniques of cutting and removal of material. The combination of methods makes the overall system cheap. However, there is wastage of material due to the subtractive method involved. Also, complex curvatures and cavities are difficult to create. (Wong & Hernandez, 2012)

Polyjet. In this process, a jet of photo-polymer is inducted through print heads along x and y-axes, and the polymer is cured using ultraviolet rays. Water jets remove the overhangs caused due to inefficient curing at a later stage. This process renders parts of dimensions of the order of 16 microns, considerably thinner than other processes. The process is also suitable for making colored components. However, the product is not as robust as those made using processes like stereolithography and selective laser sintering. (Wong & Hernandez, 2012)

Applications

To begin with, in the 80s, the technology was mainly used to build prototypes for industry. Over time, with advances in materials and increasing capability to create thinner jets of the material ( now going into nanometres as compared to microns), the technology is becoming more accessible for use by common consumers. Accordingly, there is a greater ‘buzz’ about the technology, and it is about to make the next giant shift, from the factory to the residence. A brief look at possible applications using this technology follows.

Lightweight Machines. Weight-strength ratios are critical to efficiency in the design of automobiles and aircraft. The more the strength per unit weight, the more acceptable the part, as it will lend to overall safety, and make the automobile more fuel efficient. This search for enhanced strength per weight ratios has received a fillip with 3D printing. Complex cross sections and shapes required in aircraft and automobiles can be made using 3D printing. GE is in the midst of designing fuel injectors and parts of fan blades through 3D printing, and the products are likely to be mass produced in the near timeframe. (Advanced materials and Processes, 2012) Techniques like the ‘hanging method’ and ‘soap fill method’, originally applied in civil engineering, can be suitably modified to be used in 3D printing of automobile and aircraft parts. The aircraft industry uses the processes of selective laser sintering and electon beam manufacture, which are limited in application only by the imagination of engineers. (Wong & Hernandez, 2012) Rapid Prototyping. The chief advantage of 3D printing in industry is the new-found ability to create prototypes rapidly- either of products themselves, or of molds used to mass produce the final product. Apart from the automobile and aircraft industry, rapid prototyping has applications in other industries, such as toys, apparel, and containers. The prototypes of shoes are created using 3D printing by cutting edge firms .(Kaur, 2012) Architectural Models. The idea of a building in the mind of an architect receives critical traction towards execution only when the customer can see it, and appreciate what the architect wants to create. Traditionally, architects would create models of buildings using hand-crafting techniques. This approach was inherently slow, and unable to capture complexity. Computer aided design software came as a boon to architects, enabling them to envision complex ideas, and show complex designs on the screen to customers. 3D printing is a crucial step forward in this area, as it enables architects to print their ideas in three dimensions. Complex structures can be created, using the same CAD files that the architects were working on in the first place, as CAD is the pre-requisite for 3D printing. The time saved and resolutions obtained create a paradigm shift in visualisation. Stereolithography is the preferred process for architects to convert idea into a 3D model. (Wong & Hernandez, 2012) Medical Applications. When an 83 year old woman got herself a 3D printed jawbone, little did she know that she was making history (Wong & Hernandez, 2012). There are a host of medical applications using 3D printing. Before planning repair of broken bones and joints, doctors can now get an exact replica of the affected bone or joint, so that it becomes easy for them to plan the reconstructive activity. 3D printing is very useful in replacing bones. Being of porosity that can be varied as per requirement, and also having the possibility of being conductive, the 3D printed bones can act as the base for metallic implants. The 3D printed bones have suitable porosity, cell structure and size that facilitates the growth of tissue, and helps the bone mesh with the human body. (Wong & Hernandez, 2012) Dentists can create accurately designed teeth to fit in human molars – which vary from person to person in infinitesimal differences. The strength of the 3D printed bones and implants are considerably higher than those created by other artificial means, and hence promise to give longer life to the affected patients. (Wong & Hernandez, 2012) Prosthetic sockets are another area where the uniqueness of 3D printing helps. Sockets made using 3D printing process like stereolithography have considerably better adaptation to the human body as compared to machine-made parts. (Wong & Hernandez, 2012) The future of medical applications lies in 3D array printing, by which tissue can be created. This will be a boon for people who lose valuable tissue during accidents. The possibility of creating blood vessels is no moe in the realm of fiction, and the day is not far when heart bypas surgery can be done using vessels that are 3D printed. (Wong & Hernandez, 2012) Bio-medical engineering fields also stand to gain from 3D printing. Bio sensors and chips can be created using lithographic processes with laser or light. (Wong & Hernandez, 2012) Drugs on Demand. It is possible to get made to order drugs using 3D printing processes. The basic theme underlying the possibility of made to order drugs is the feasibility of 3D printing to acquire various chemical constituents and create a synthesiser, which in turn can produce different chemical compounds. Such compunds can be organic as well as inorganic. Some of the inorganic compunds made are used in drugs to treat cancer. 3D additive processes can be used to build medecines layer by layer – thus giving maximum flexibility to doctors to prescribe targeted dosages for patients, enhancing healthcare. (Kaur, 2012) Aids for the Visually Impaired. Traditionally, tactile elements to guide the visually impaired are made using 2D technology. 3D printing gives the option to add the volumetric dimension to tactile aids for the visually impaired. This lends an exponential advantage to the visually impaired in navigation and movement. (Kaur, 2012) Fuel Cell Manufacture Enhancement. Fuel cells are the way of the future, wherein depleting sources of oil will force us to look for alternate energy options. Fuel cell technology is currently maturing. Currently, fuel cells require a thin film of platinum to be placed, to facilitate oxidation and reduction processes required in the fuel cell. This layer of platinum is laid using screen printing technology. 3D printing has the potential to reduce the time taken by four to five times. This is because of the inherent process differences between screen printing technology and the inkjet printing used in 3D processes for fuel cell platinum layers. While every rejected layer produced by screen printing process requires the layer to be re-painted and dried, in 3D printing, the drying and loading processes are inherent in the mechanism iteself, thus saving valuable time. In essence 3D printing helps to improve the quality of the thin platinum film, ultimately resulting in greater efficiency in the fuel cell. 3D Printing in Forensics. Anthropological forensics has benefited from 3D printing, as the technology is helping laboratories to identify mortal remains of dead soldiers and return them honorably to their families. Even in the courtroom, 3D printing is enabling the display of evidence of wounds and bite marks in the form of models for ease of understanding of judge and jury. (Kaur, 2012) Training Applications. 3D printed models can be used for students to learn how to deal with trauma victims. Wind tunnels can be created using 3D printing technology, for practice and knowledge building of aeronautical students. (Kaur, 2012) 3D Printing in Art. Fashion, furnitures and the lighting industry have myriad applications using 3D printing, which enables the conceptualization and execution of complex shapes. Sculptors find themselves at a unique crossroads of ancient history and the future. (Greenberg, 2013) Their craft is one of oldest, yet they have now a chance to give sculpture a whole new dimension, by using 3D printing to create forms that would otherwise be near-impossible to create. Museums are re-inventing themselves into relevance, by offering visitors a chance to carry away world famous art and sculpture from their portals, albeit 3D printed models. (Undeen, 2013) Custom Consumer Products. Made to order consumer products are now available, using 3D printing processes. Varied items like jewellery, mobile phone cases, custom bike frames and helmets, kitchen utensils, and even electric guitars can be ordered. Amusement parks can do a 3D scan of customers and gift them with 3D prints of themselves in miniature form. (Kaur, 2012) 3D Printing for Hobbyists. With reducing costs of 3D printers, the world of 3D printing is opening up to hobbyists. Today, it is possible for an enthusiast to own a ‘Do-it-yourself’ 3D printer. If one is not inclined to go through the trials and tribulations of iterations and defective parts, there are online sites that deliver 3D printed parts on order. While knowledge of CAD software is essential to a large degree, even simpler software are on the horizon – that do away with even the imperative to learn the intricacies of CAD. (Wong & Hernandez, 2012) Limitations While the immense opportunities opened up through 3D printing flow out of a sense of the applications outlined above, it would be instructive to assess the limitations of 3D printing in the current scenario. It has been noticed that ‘Post Printing Operations’, such as cutting, drilling and polishing are invariably necessary when products are made by 3D printing. This is because the process is not sophisticated enough to render a finished product merely as the end result of a print run. (Lemu, 2012) ‘Surface accuracy’, meaning the degree of difference between the CAD file and the final printed product, is another pertinent measure of the distance covered by 3D printing. Losses of accuracy are noticed, and are attributable to the various elements of the printing process – ‘pre-processing’, ‘process planning’ and ‘post-processing’. (Lemu, 2012) Pre-processing errors occur due to loss occurring in the transfer of print information from the CAD machine to the 3D printer; this occurs due to the multitude of file formats supported by CAD programs and 3D printers. While some file formats are common, format changes are necessary when the file formats are not the same. Th change in format causes a loss in information. With lossy information about the surface to be printed, there is inconsistancy in the printed surface, resulting in lower surface acuracy. Lowered surface accurace is evidenced by observing ‘geometric deviation’ – which means a deviation in shapes such as holes and curves, and ‘dimensional deviation’ – where it is observed that there is a ‘shrinkage in interior dimensions, and a collateral expansion in exterior dimensions’. Generally, 3D printers compensate for such deviations by a corresponding scaling function. It has been seen that the STL file format, which is the default format for 3D printing, is not as accurate as the VMRL format. As a result, rapid prototyping using the STL format becomes a difficult proposition. (Lemu, 2012) While 3D printers do not use support structures for the products because the powder supports the prototype on its own, their claims of having smooth and flat surfaces are not verifiable in tests. It has been observed that surface distortions are at a ‘level akin to machining of steel materials’. Surface roughness is highest in the ‘x-z’ direction, that is in the direction where the material is continually poured to create the height dimension of the product. This is because of the continual runs of the print head that pours material, while the laser / ultraviolet beam is curing the material. (Lemu, 2012) Another cause for concern in 3D printing is the aspect of minimal wall thickness. It has been observed that as the walls of the products get thinner, there is a tendency of breakage. One way to mitigate the problem is by ensuring the relative orientation of the thin walled surface during printing. It has been noticed that surfaces placed along the ‘x-y’ plane are more prone to damage. (Lemu, 2012) The Open Source Movement in 3D Printing Just as the Internet revolutionised the was we communicate, 3D printing is going to revolutionize the way we build. That, in essence, is the thrust of this section. 3D printing is changing the way manufacturers approach a production issue. Earlier, economics of scale was a determining factor behind whether to experiment with a new design. Once a design was finalised for production, changing the design meant changing the mold, even perhaps establishing a new production line. With 3D printing, the sunk costs in design are dramatically lower. This releaes a huge quantum of intellectual and creative capital into the manufacturing process. Smaller batch sizes can be planned, and prototypes can be tested rapidly. The type of 3D printing machines in the market is also changing, in a manner similar to the history of computers. Just as huge mainframe computers were seen in the initial days of computing, and the common man had little access to the power of the computer, so did 3D printers begin their journey in the form of being huge behemoths with big industry. Gradually, their sizes decreased, as did the capability increase. Today, there are thousands, if not millions, of 3D printers at the lower end of the scale, catering for small businesses and individuals.Most recently, users have begun to come to the market with open source concepts for 3D printers. (Jeroen & Bruijn, 2013) The costs of the initial machines were in the order of $ 250,000. Today, schools and medium enterprises can get 3D printing machines in the range of $10,000 to $30,000. There are firms which have begun printing orders from consumers with excess industrial 3D waste. Home-use 3D printers have been introduced at prices as low as $1,299. (Jeroen & Bruijn, 2013) Amidst such growth, Adrian Bowyer, a lecturer in the University of Bath, United Kingdom, devised the RepRap – a self replicating 3D printer, in 2005. The RepRap consists of a heated nozzle from which plastic is extruded, and the nozzle moves in x,y and z dimensions, driven by computer guided machines. The RepRap is able to replicate itself, as it is largely made of plastic. (Jeroen & Bruijn, 2013) Bowyer gave away the RepRap for free under the GNU public license. Initial traction in adoption of the RepRap was low. However, time and word of mouth slowly gave way to a groundswell of RepRap enthusiasts, and numbers grew. By 2012, there were estimated to be around 30,000 RepRap machines. (Jeroen & Bruijn, 2013) Soon, a few of the originial RepRap enthusiasts turned themselves into low end commercial houses, selling RepRap kits. A few even graduated to selling fully assembled RepRap machines. Some of these open-source initiated firms were taken over by larger manufacturers. (Jeroen & Bruijn, 2013) However, it can be said without a doubt that the innovative culture in manufacturing found a spark in RepRap, and the movement is growing stronger by the day. The implications of open-source manufacturing initiated by RepRap and others like it are paradigm changing to consider. Just like Napster challenged large music companies, and Linux challenged Microsoft, open-source manufacturing promises to challenge big manufacturing firms – something unimagined since the advent of the industrial revolution. Right from the time the steam engine was invented, industry has been into a coalescive mode – smaller firms have invariably got merged into bigger ones. Economics of scale dictated that it was always cheaper to mass produce. Suddenly, 3D Printing has spawned the antithesis of big industry. The potential to build anything now lies in the hands of the individual – at least theoretically. (Jeroen & Bruijn, 2013) There are many ways the innovative energy in manufacturing might manifest itself in future. One mode will be the metamorphosis of the individual hobbyist into the next generation entrepreuneur. Just like the Wright brothers designed the aircraft without thinking of commercial implications, similarly enthusiasts wold build products to suit their imagination with 3D printers. Many of these flights of fancy might go straight to the dustbin, but a few of the ideas would survive and be adopted by the mainstream. (Jeroen & Bruijn, 2013) It is possible for 3D printing enthusiasts to bring products into the hands of those who are ower down in the order of priority for big business when new products are introduced. For example, high end mobile phones are initially shipped for a discerning few. And then once the technology and usage becomes more acceptable, cheaper versions are rolled out for the mass market. This trend has been succesful so far because the lower end consumer had no other option but to wait for big business to decide to create a cheaper product. With cheaper 3D printing technology and open source manufacturing, this paradigm might get altered. Those not served by big business might opt not to wait, and instead adopt versions created by enthusiasts with their 3D printers. (Jeroen & Bruijn, 2013) Economics of scale and its corollary – mass market production, always leave out in the fringes those requirements that do not fit the Malthusian requirements of the market. These fringes might now be served by 3D printing enthusiasts through open source innovation. (Jeroen & Bruijn, 2013) An example to this effect may be shoe sizes. Due to economics of scale, it is virtually impossible for shoe companies to produce shoe sizes at an infinite continuum. To economise on production line costs and on the cost of material, companies have, over time, devised a series of standard shoe sizes for customers. However, customers might now have the option to have shoes custom built for themselves, adhering to the unique contours of their feet. The old shoe maker had lost out to the shoe factory. 3D printing might get the old shoe maker back in a new technological avatar. The impact of open source manufacturing on big firms can pan out in a number of ways. In case of innovations that directly compete with a company’s product, there can be two types of reactions. First – the company will be forced ot rein in its prices, which is good for the economy as a whole. Second, the company would be benefited by assessing the market-readiness for the product pitched by the 3D printers, and the understanding might help it to alter its product line. To this extent, the open source market would be acting a feelers for the bigger firms (Jeroen & Bruijn, 2013). Complementary innovations may be another scenario. Open source manufacturers might develop products that complement the products of the big manufacturers. This scenario results in increased profits for the big manufacturers. For instance, 3D printing comunities are providing ideas possible to be printed, and consumers are using these ideas to flock to online 3D printing companies – a case of compleentary innovation by the open source community. Similarly, open source enthusiasts have developed easy to use CAD software, obviating the need to learn the official CAD software, and resultantly getting larger people on the bandwagon to try out lower end rapid prototyping machines like the RepRap (Jeroen & Bruijn, 2013). Options for Business in the Face of 3D Open Source Innovation Big business has a number of options to cope with the open source innovation challenge posed by 3D printing enthusiasts. The options can range from monitoring, attacking, adopting, acquiring and facilitating the sources of open source 3D printing. Monitor. Firms can monitor what the open source community is building. To this end, firms have among their ranks enthusiasts who work on 3D printers – either as a full time job, or as a hobby. Notwithstanding their own ranks, firms need to conect to open source communities. Within these communities, firms need to identify those who are more likely to innovate, and follow those innovations for ideas about general acceptance from the market, and about technology and process innovation per se. It has been seen that the people likely to innovate are those who have more experience, and are better connected in the open source community. Also, it has been observed that those who spend their energies on innovation as an end by itself are less likely to find their ideas being adopted widely. Paradoxically, those who spend more time on the 3D printers are less likely to innovate, and yet, when they do, their innovations are more likely to be widely adopted. These specific groups of people need to be monitored by business for possible clues to future trends in manufacturing. (Jeroen & Bruijn, 2013) Attack. Attacking individuals or user communities for infringements of copyright is an opiton with big business. However, this step is likely to antagonise users, and is expensive, time consuming and even impractical if the user community is dispersed. While big business has not adopted this technique so far ( inlike the music industry taking on Napster), the step might be adopted if user comunities develop new industry standards, or begin competing with industry. (Jeroen & Bruijn, 2013) Adopt. It is possible for big business to adopt the innovations of the open source communities. This is actually happening in the world of 3D Printing. Companies like Makerbot and Ultimaking routinely introduce concepts that have emerged from the 3D printing enthusiast communities. (Jeroen & Bruijn, 2013) Acquire. Acquiring the small-time firms created by enthusiasts, or coopting active members of the open source community, is another option with industry. This option is adopted by industry in the case of 3D printing enthusiasts. Small firms like Bits and Bytes, as well as sundry service providers, have been acquired by larger ones by 3D Systems. (Jeroen & Bruijn, 2013) Facilitate. Firms might even facilitate the efforts of the open source 3D printing community. This option is adopted when the innovations are complementary to the firm in question. (Jeroen & Bruijn, 2013) Ethical Concerns At the tail end of every rainbow is a cloud. Just as the Internet freed up considerable human potential, it brought in its wake easier methods for terrorists to collaborate, pass information about nefarious activities, and even buid bombs. In the same vein, 3D printing has the potential to bring the power of the word into the unregulated hands of the individual. While most applications might be innovative and progressive, deviations are bound to occur. There are enthusiasts who have build bullets and firearms using 3D printers. (CBC News, 2013) Cody Wilson was the first person to fire a 3D printed weapon His startup, Defence Distributed, was quickly ostracised by business houses, but the genie had been taken out of the bottle (Krasny, 2013). In a rapidly dangerous world, the unregulated spread of firearms is a serious cause for concern. Similarly, other products which are potentially damaging to the security of society in general can be attempted to be created using 3D manufacturing – an arena for which regulation and law will have a lot of catching up to do. Theft can be facilitated by 3D printing. Duplication of keys will be manna for the car thief. 3D printed card skimmers have succesfully fooled ATM machines. Another aspect of moral concern is that 3D printing might enable individuals to illegally infringe copyrighted material – which would lead to reduced incentive for innovation and invention in the longer run. With 3D printing entering the arena of human organs, it would be pertinent to ask the impact of a misprint for a human being, and the rigor in pinpointing responsibility in such a case. (Li, et al, 2013) Conclusion 3D printing is a paradigm shift in the way the world functions. In the annals of disruptive change, 3D printing is going to be at par with the invention of gunpowder, the steam engine, and the rise of the Internet. As more and more products become possible with 3D printing, the model for manufacturing will be challenged more and more, and innovation will get a fillip. The limitations in product design and finish as faced currently by 3D printing are bound to be surmounted over time, with improvements in technology and experience in using 3D printers. If you don’t have a RepRap at home, it is time to get one.

Works Cited

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Li, Sam; Wong, Vincent; Manouvrier, Chris, Gorny, Ari (2013). 3D Printing- Ethical Issues. Beta. 06 Sep 2013. https://beta.csesoc.unsw.edu.au/?p=510