Wikipedia:United States Education Program/Courses/Sustainable Systems in Developing Countries (Ming Xu)/Sandbox wind power in developing countries

Introduction
Rich in wind resources, heavily reliant on imported fossil fuels, and struggling to bear traditional fuel costs which are rapidly rising due to climate change, developing countries are increasingly turning to renewable energy sources such as wind power. Not surprisingly, many large developing countries have already established and are actively expanding utility-scale wind power facilities, but wind projects are also growing rapidly in many smaller developing countries as they too search for low-emission, reliable, alternative energy sources that will ensure energy security and meet sustainability goals.

China
See Wind power in the People's Republic of China

India
See Wind Power in India

Brazil
See Wind_power_in_Brazil

Turkey
See Wind power in Turkey

Pakistan
See Wind power in Pakistan

Iran
See Wind power in Iran

Romania
See Wind_power_in_Romania

Poland
See Wind_power_in_Poland

South Africa
See Wind_farm

South Africa possesses around 7,000MW of exploitable wind resources, most of which are untapped. Although currently almost 90% of the power supply in this country relies on coal and oil, as part of the country's progressive energy and environmental strategy, the South African government has actively encouraged and established legal and policy frameworks that support the development of the wind power industry. In 2002, the South African Government released The White Paper on Promotion of Renewable Energy and Clean Energy Development to lay out objectives and directives for renewable energy development. This support is critical to the industry, as without substantial governmental financial support, heavy initial costs for design and installation make it impossible for wind power to compete with more affordable conventional energy sources in the short term.

As of 2012, there are three wind projects in development in South Africa:

Klipheuwel: In 2002-03, Eskom erected three wind turbines with an installed capacity of 3.2 MW at an experimental wind energy farm at Klipheuwel on the West Coast near Cape Town. Research on the potential of wind energy as a source of electricity has been carried out, and evaluation of different wind-based technologies and their economic viability has been conducted at this site as well.

Kookenaap: Eskom plans to establish a 100 MW wind farm at Lutzville on the West Coast. An Environmental Impact Assessment for this project has also been successfully completed. It would be the second commercial wind farm in South Africa, after Darling Wind Farm.

Darling Wind Farm: Commissioned in June 2008, 5.2MW - 4 x 1.3 MW (wind turbines by Fuhrlaender, Germany) It would be the first commercial wind project in South Africa and power Cape Town through Eskom's national grid.

Additional projects are also slated for development in South Africa with the help of technical and financial support from other countries, such as Denmark and China, who assist in the investment and construction of utility-scale wind projects.

In addition to utility scale wind farms, South Africa also develops Small wind turbines (SWT) that provide power directly to rural households, farms, schools and businesses.

Offshore Wind Power by Country
Offshore wind moves faster than the majority of onshore wind resources, making offshore supplies much more efficient and powerful than onshore options, and many developing countries, such as India, South Africa,and Brazil, are richer in offshore wind than in onshore wind. However, the highly technical nature and unique challenges of constructing offshore wind farms typically make such projects 1.5-2.5 times more expensive than similarly sized onshore projects, making offshore opportunities prohibitively expensive for most developing countries.

China
China is the only developing country with offshore wind installations. Two offshore wind farms are operating in China, and one is under construction. See Offshore Wind in China

India
Main Article Indian Wind Energy Outlook 2011

As India currently lacks specific policies to support offshore wind power generation, the private sector is mobilizing to develop offshore wind resources. Led by Tata Power, the first company to formally request approval for offshore development in Gujarat, many other private institutions have followed suit. Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) has announced its plans to tap offshore wind power along the Indian coastline, and in June of 2010, several major global corporations including Areva, Siemens and GE announced their plans to explore offshore wind opportunities in India.

Trend
Renewable energy is considered as strategic goal in major developing countries. In developing countries, wind power's future development in competition with other alternative energy sources and conventional sources depends on wind resource availability, accessibility and affordability.

The global wind resource map shows that some developing countries have huge wind resource over others. Where wind resource is rich, developing countries make ambitious wind installation capacity targets. A developing country’s wind energy development is closely related with other renewable energy sources, particular solar power. Take India as an example. While India’s wind installation capacity far exceeds that of solar PV (1455OMW vs. 183MW), wind farms have occupied most commercially wind-rich areas in India, and the wind-power expansion is supposed to slow down in the forseeable future. on the other hand, located at the equator India’s solar resource is extremely rich and widely accessible, that accounts for the government’s strong support, both financially and politically, to solar photovoltaic development.

Installation siting
Onshore and offshore wind installations depend on wind resource distribution as well as technology of a country. Iran, for instance, has most wind resource along the mountainous area, thus has no offshore wind projects. Besides technical and economic challenges (Offshore wind is typically 1.5-2 times more expensive than its onshore equivalent) .Political and navigational security are also concerns of offshore wind, particularly when deep water WTGs technology is available on a commercial scale. China is the only developing country with operating offshore wind farms.

Offshore Wind Power by Country
Offshore wind moves faster than the majority of onshore wind resources, making offshore supplies much more efficient and powerful than onshore options, and many developing countries, such as India, South Africa,and Brazil, are richer in offshore wind than in onshore wind. However, the highly technical nature and unique challenges of constructing offshore wind farms typically make such projects 1.5-2.5 times as costly as similarly-sized onshore projects, making offshore opportunities prohibitively expensive for most developing countries.

China
China is the only developing country with offshore wind installations. Two offshore wind farms are operating in China, and another is currently under construction. See Offshore Wind in China

India
Main Article Indian Wind Energy Outlook 2011

As India currently lacks policies specifically designed to support offshore wind power generation, the private sector is mobilizing to develop offshore wind resources. Led by Tata Power, the first company to formally request approval for offshore development in Gujarat, many other private institutions have followed suit. Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) has announced its plans to tap offshore wind power along the Indian coastline, and in June of 2010, several major global corporations including Areva, Siemens and GE announced their plans to explore offshore wind opportunities in India.

Trends
Renewable energy is of strategic importance to many developing and developed countries. In developing countries, wind power development relies on wind resource availability, accessibility and affordability and must compete with both alternative and conventional energy sources.

The global wind resource map shows that some developing countries have an great wind resource advantage over others. According to the map, North Africa, Southern Latin America, central Asia and vast offshore areas are rich in exploitable wind resources. Where wind resources are rich, developing countries can make ambitious wind installation capacity targets. A developing country’s wind energy development is also closely tied to its potential in other renewable energy sources, particularly solar power. For example, India’s current wind installation capacity far exceeds that of solar photovoltaics (1455OMW vs. 183MW) but wind farms already occupy most of the commercially wind-rich areas in India, so expansion in the sector is expected to slow in the near future while, thanks to the country's equatorial location making it extremely rich in solar resources, solar power development has garnered strong financial and political support from the government.

Installation siting
The viability of onshore and offshore wind installations depends on wind resource distribution as well as the available technology in a given country. In Iran, for instance, the majority of wind resources occur in onshore in mountainous terrain, limiting development and offering no opportunity for offshore wind projects. Besides technical and economic challenges, political and navigational security are also concerns for offshore wind development even when deep water wind tower generator technologies are available on a commercial scale. China is the only developing country with operating offshore wind farms.

Installation size
Wind farm installation size is determined by wind turbine generator (WTG) size and the number of generators per wind farm. Installation size is also influenced by resource distribution, amount and availability of capital investment, power demand, and infrastructure availability.

Wind turbine generator size varies from small wind turbines (SWT) operating at the kilowatt level, to megawatt-scale wind turbine generators. SWTs are primarily deployed for low power demands (individual households and businesses), much like distributed solar photovoltaic power, and generate less power than large wind turbines. However, wind turbines become more cost-effective as turbine size increases, because big WTGs generate more power while maintaining a lower generation cost and relatively low footprint. While solar photovoltaic power unit costs do not change much as plant size increases, utility-scale wind power is much cheaper as WTG size increases. WTG size in developing countries has been increasing steadily in recent years. India's installed average WTG size grew from 767 kW in 2004 to 1,117 kW in 2009. China's average WTG size grew from 771kw in 2004 to 1360kw in 2009. As many developed countries typically employ bigger WTGs, such as Denmark 2368kw (2009) and Germany 1977kw (2009), the WTG size increase in developing countries is likely to continue as more advanced technologies from developed countries become more widely available.

Wind power demand is influenced by national energy demand, wind resources, local demand and comparative advantage (or disadvantage)to conventional energy sources. In China, for example, the energy demanded by rapid industrialization is soaring, and existing conventional power plants are insufficient to supply all of the energy needed. This demand-supply gap offers an opportunity to install large-scale wind farms, ranging from 200MW to 20,000MW. By comparison, India and Brazil tend toward moderate wind farm sizes. 16 of the 17 largest Indian wind farms produce between 10 to 33MW. Brazil's 10 wind farms, currently under construction, are similar in average size.

Infrastructure availability, specifically transmission and interconnection systems,are closely related to installation size. Many wind-rich areas in developing countries have very limited transmission capacity due to the physical and technical limitations of existing distribution systems and the location of the available wind resources, and wind farms frequently face challenges in accessing the normal grid system (non-Smart grid systems). The transmission infrastructure thus limits installation size and reach, meaning that many are restricted to the demands typical of a local power plant. In developing countries aiming to nurturing wind power as a major energy source, infrastructure investment usually accompanies WTG installation investment. China's effort in developing the Smart Grid system to support large-scale wind farm development in the western part of the country is an example.

Investment is a direct determinant for installation size. Wind farms require substantial up-front investment for installation and interconnection. In many places transmission upgrades are necessary. Although wind energy prices decrease as wind farm sizes increase, the optimum installation size is frequently not realized due to limited financing.

Economically feasiblity
Both developing and developed countries are trying to make the wind power more economically feasible. It is a very competitive energy compared to traditional energy source such as fossils fuel and nuclear energy if we take into account the indirect cost such as the environmental, public health and other social cost.

C=(O+I×a)/Ec

C: cost per kilowatt hour of the electricity generated

O: maintenance charge

I: capitalized cost

Ec: generated electricity per year

a: rate of return on investment

a=1/(n-∑〖(1+p)〗^(-1) )=p/(1-〖(1+p)〗^(-n) )

p: annual interest rate of invested capital

n: unit lifetime

According to the formulas above, the cost, C depends on n, the unit lifetime. The ideal lifetime of a unit is 25-30 years, and many manufacturers are trying to enhance the lifetime of their units to reach this efficiency target. Cost is also influenced by the amount of electricity generated (Ec). Under ideal conditions, frequently featuring technological support through partnership or policy support for financing, a turbine can generate a considerable sustainable profit.

While wind power costs reached grid parity in Europe by 2010, developing countries have yet to achieve this feat, due to WTG size, high transmission cost, and high abandonment rates. When built in appropriate sizes and well integrated into the grid, WTGs are very economical, especially when accompanied by government subsidies, such as lower taxes on manufacturing and installation, and an efficient energy market (Comment, encouraging people to use less energy is not a way to boost wind power development). China is rapidly constructing a smart power grid to meet its growing demand for energy. To be more economically efficient, China has actively established greater policy support for wind development, particularly as environmental impacts in the country are viewed with increasing concern.

Transmission and Interconnection
Due to settlement patterns, wind resources are frequently abundant in less populated areas, such as mountainous areas or deserts. Most wind installations in developing countries are located in areas where transmission capacity is limited. A major challenge in interconnection is the highly variable nature of wind power, which introduces an element of instability or inconsistency into the grid system. In some cases wind farms are denied access to regional grid systems and or are unable to transmit a portion of the electricity produced and subsequently, parts of the wind farm or the power generated must be abandoned. To solve the problem some developing countries are expanding transmission coverage and capacity on one hand, and supporting new innovations and further development of the grid system on the other (i.e. Smart Grid). China is adopting a “Smart Grid” system and developing large-storage batteries to enhance the grid system's tolerance to variable electricity generation as well as stabilizing wind electricity through energy storage. For five years beginning in 2011, China will invest more than $100 billion in improving smart grid technology and construction. It is really a huge size of project, which indicates how much the Chinese government value the innovation on smart grid.

Innovation
Various innovations have been promoted or implemented and new advances in wind power technologies continue to be developed. In most developed countries, research and development is focused on wind power technologies, while in developing countries such as China, emphasis is placed on both technology and process.

Magnetic Levitation (Maglev) wind turbines are permanent magnetic levitation wind power generators. This type of energy generator is regarded as a key breakthrough in boosting wind power generating capacity. Changing the shape of turbines and utilizing wind energy at higher altitude, and using floating windmills , are other revolutionary ideas that have been proposed, tested, and even implemented. However, regardless of advances in technology, economic feasibility and social and environmental impacts should be carefully considered before wind power development is undertaken.

Challenges and Opportunities
"Main Article" Wind Energy for Developing Countries

Like developing countries, developed countries are investing heavily in wind power and view it as a strategic goal in energy security, as many Western European and North American developed countries feel the pressure of their reliance on imported fossil fuels increasing as their domestic reserves are rapidly depleted. However, while international competition brings challenges to wind power development in developing countries, it can bring benefits as well.

Even in smaller developing countries, with limited financial and technical resources, wind power can still be economically feasible. In sites with sufficient wind resources, wind power reliability and sustainability can help it to compete with traditional sources of power.

While wind power projects in many developing countries are stalled by local lack of expertise in terms of identifying ideal sites and knowledge in how to plan, construct and maintain facilities, partnerships with providers in developed countries have proven successful in overcoming these barriers to entry.

One such project TERNA (Technical Expertise for ReNewable Energy Application), funded by the German government serves as an example of a developed country offering its technical expertise as a form of aid to support renewable energy projects in developing countries. Several small developing countries have successfully laid the foundation to effective wind development through partnership with TERNA, including Morocco, Namibia and Jordan.

Morocco

In 1990, an evaluation of wind energy potential in Morocco in conjunction with TERNA, began gathering and assessing data, with an emphasis on exploration of coastal-based wind opportunities, and revealed that Morocco's Tetouan region was one of the highest potential sites for wind development in the world. This exciting discovery led to financing, policy support and state utility partnerships that have laid the groundwork for wind development on a number of scales within the country.

Namibia

In Namibia, a program in partnership with TERNA conducted an in-depth study of land sites from both productivity and economic feasibility perspectives, to inform energy development and policy and begin to outline plans for supporting wind development economically and through regulation to improve the likelihood that such projects, with their long-term benefits, are financially feasible in the short term.

Jordan

Partnership with TERNA in Jordan has resulted in the establishment of a three-pronged approach to wind exploration and development. One part of the program is dedicated to collecting and assessing wind data and measurements, the second, to conducting feasibility studies at high-potential sites the program identifies, and the third, to securing financing to improve project feasibility. The program, when combined with the country's unique balance between policy support for cheap commercial power and regulation encouraging private sector collaboration, shows great promise for successful wind development going forward.

Internal and External Pressures
Domestically within any developing country, wind power faces significant competition from conventional energy sources. In no developing country has wind electricity reached grid parity. Wind power’s relatively high cost, generation instability, and inherent weakness in transmission capacity are all technological obstacles that confront the wind power industry in developing countries. These obstacles make wind power particularly vulnerable in a free market. In some cases, wind power in developing countries faces stronger competition than in developed countries. For example, coal power plants' ‘efficiency in China is higher than that of the U.S, while wind power efficiency in China is smaller. Although developing countries usually have increasing energy demands, wind energy’s weaknesses limit its ability to compete with conventional and other alternative energy sources, such as hydropower, biofuels, and nuclear power. Iran, the only wind turbine producer in the Middle East, is experiencing limited and dwindling success in wind installation. A main contributor is Iran’s rich petroleum and natural gas reserve that makes Iran’s fossil-fuel energy sources highly competitive. As the wind energy industry in Iran is heavily subsidized, new wind installation speed decreases proportionally when government funding decreases. For transmission and interconnection difficulties, even with quickly expanded installation, wind farms in developing countries rarely generate full-capacity electricity. Wind power accounts for just 6% of India's total installed power capacity, and generates only 1.6% of the country's power. Developing countries also face administrative challenges. Government subsidies can create "boom and bust" cycles, when wind power manufacturing and installation exceeds sustainable growth then collapses or slows when funding is low. In 2011 the Government of China announced a “brake” in new wind installation due to technical obstacles in interconnection and transmission while heavy subsidies encouraged companies and local governments to install wind turbines, resulting in a wind abandonment rate greater than 20%.

Externally, developed countries possess many advanced wind power-related technologies that deny developing countries entry. These technologies include high-capacity storage batteries for wind farms, wind turbine technologies with higher efficiency, stability, wider applicability (offshore wind, for example), and smart grid technologies. Despite political concerns, and amid fears that technology transfer and collaboration is mutually-destructive, in that developed countries lose funds they could have used to expand and advance their technology while developing countries with huge wind potential lack the capacity to exploit it with their own technology and must rely on developed countries for assistance, the benefits of cooperation in wind technology and installment in many cases outweigh the potential ill effects.

Another opportunity in wind power lies in the potential for job creation. From design to manufacturing to installation, the wind energy industry, like other alternative energy sectors, creates more jobs than its fossil-fuel counterparts. India's Suzlon, one of the world's leading wind turbine manufacturers, employs more than 13,000 people directly -about 10,000 in India, and the remainder in China, Belgium, and the United States. By conservative estimates, the wind power industry currently employs some 300,000 people.