Wikipedia:WikiProject Skepticism/List of questionable claims

The following is a list of fields of endeavor and concepts that critics believe or have been characterized as having skepticism or scientific skepticism aspects. The definition refers to any concept, method, profession, organization, or person who has ever (including historical) been associated with the concept of critical skepticism. The subject or person may have been on the receiving end of accusations, on the accusing end, or on the study end (hence the inclusion of various terms related to medicine, science, psychology, logic, law, etc.). Some of these concepts, or certain parts of them, may be the subject of scientific research and may not be wholly dismissed by the scientific community. See the individual articles for detailed information.

Characteristics
1. This list is about skepticism as well as its association with criticisms, which is the reason for the inclusion of some topics about criticisms. The two topics are intimately related. The characteristics of scientific skepticism utilizes critical thinking in evaluating claims to reach a well-justified conclusion or logical answer, and attempts to oppose claims made which lack suitable evidential basis. Like a scientist, a scientific skeptic aims to decide claims based on verifiability and falsifiability rather than accepting claims on faith, anecdotes, or relying on unfalsifiable categories. Skeptics often focus their criticism on claims they consider to be implausible, dubious or clearly contradictory to generally accepted science. The term pseudoskepticism is often used by the opponents of skepticism as a way of summarizing their critique.

2. Some items are included simply because there has been debate from skeptical critics that have characterized it as its possible involvement of being or having a relationship to criticism, regardless of whether it was or was not. Other items are included as educational aids, as an understanding of these subjects, to enable one to better understand the subject of skeptical topics, and hopefully, making the whole process of scientific skepticism much more transparent.

3. Therefore, inclusion here is definitely not a statement that the subject matter is skeptical, that solely it has aspects regarded as rational skepticism by certain groups or people. It is only listed here because scientific skeptics, debunkers, consumer protection advocates, and/or government officials (FDA, FTC, etc.) consider the subject to be in some manner related to the subject of skepticism or criticisms, and therefore of possible value when researching the subject.

Alternative medicine

 * The following is a list of alternative medicine topics that are often criticized by scientists, mainstream medicine, or skeptics.


 * Alternative medicine
 * Acupuncture Acupuncture is the practice of inserting very thin needles in specific acupuncture points or combinations of points on the body to improve health and well-being. "There are over 1,000 acupoints that can be stimulated through the insertion of needles. Most claims of acupuncture have not been proved to the scientific standards of evidence-based medicine   (cf. Cochrane Collaboration ).
 * Acupuncture point
 * Applied kinesiology
 * Ayurveda
 * Chelation therapy
 * Chiropractic Chiropractic is a popular form of alternative medicine whose physical mode of action is spinal manipulations that allegedly unblock nerve signals sent by the brain so that the body can heal itself. This care involves the adjustment of the spine and joints to influence the body’s nervous system and natural defense mechanisms to alleviate pain and improve general health. It is primarily used to treat back problems, headaches, nerve inflammation, muscle spasms, and other injuries and traumas.
 * Craniosacral therapy
 * Crystal power Crystal power, also known as crystal healing, is the belief that crystals have healing, mystical and/or paranormal powers. This belief has been part of several indigenous cultures for centuries.  Today it is becoming popular among certain countercultures within Western society such as the new age movement, but is regarded as baseless by  skeptics and the general scientific community.
 * Electromagnetic therapy
 * Faith healing Faith healing, or divine healing, is the use of spiritual means in treating disease, sometimes accompanied (in extreme instances) with the refusal of modern medical techniques. Another term for this is spiritual healing. Faith healing is a form of alternative medicine.
 * Folk medicine Folk medicine refers collectively to procedures traditionally used for treatment of illness and injury, aid to childbirth, and maintenance of wellness. It is a body of knowledge distinct from "scientific medicine" and may coexist in the same culture. It is usually unwritten and transmitted orally until someone "collects" it. Folk medicine is sometimes associated with quackery when practiced as theatrics or otherwise practiced fraudulently, and sometimes with witchcraft and often with shamanism, yet it may also preserve important knowledge and cultural tradition from the past.
 * Hair analysis (alternative medicine) Hair analysis is the chemical analysis of a hair sample. It is used in some branches of alternative medicine as a method of investigation to assist diagnosis. This use is controversial.
 * Herbalism Herbalism, also known as herbal medicine, herbal therapy, herbology, and phytotherapy, is a folk and traditional medicinal practice based on the use of plants and plant extracts. A common misconception about herbalism and the use of 'natural' products in general, is that 'natural' equals safe.
 * Homeopathy Homeopathy holds the premise of treating the sick with extremely diluted agents that, in undiluted doses, produce similar symptoms in the healthy. Its adherents and practitioners assert that the therapeutic potency of a remedy can be increased by serial dilution of the drug, combined with succussion, or vigorous shaking. Critics describe it as pseudoscience and quackery. The theory that extreme dilution makes drugs more powerful is inconsistent with the laws of chemistry and physics. Placebo-controlled clinical trials have given mixed results, but most have methodological problems, with better-quality trials more likely to give negative results. Additionally, cases have been reported of life-threatening complications resulting from attempts to treat serious conditions solely with homeopathic remedies.
 * Classical homeopathy
 * Clinical homeopathy
 * Complex homeopathy


 * Hoxsey Therapy
 * Innate intelligence It is well known that the use of the "innate intelligence" concept is controversial within the chiropractic profession, and is seen by many in the profession as antiquated metaphysical jargon which has no reference to reality. It is also a part of the "straight" vs. "mixing" battle that has been going on since the inception of chiropractic. Lon Morgan, DC, a reform chiropractor, expressed his criticism in this way: "Innate Intelligence clearly has its origins in borrowed mystical and occult practices of a bygone era. It remains untestable and unverifiable and has an unacceptably high penalty/benefit ratio for the chiropractic profession. The chiropractic concept of Innate Intelligence is an anachronistic holdover from a time when insufficient scientific understanding existed to explain human physiological processes. It is clearly religious in nature and must be considered harmful to normal scientific activity."
 * Iridology Iridology, also known as iridodiagnosis, is an alternative medicine practice in which patterns, colors, and other characteristics of the iris are examined for information about a patient's systemic health. Practitioners match their observations to iris charts which divide the iris into zones that correpsond to specific parts of the human body. The eye, therefore, acts as a "window" into the body's state of health, although Iridology is a practice that is not recognized by mainstream medicine. Critics, mostly practitioners of mainstream medicine, dismiss iridology largely because published studies have indicated a lack of success for its claims.   The proposed correlation between illness in the body and coinciding observable changes in the iris is unsupported by clinical data.  In controlled experiments, practitioners of iridology have performed statistically no better than chance in determining the presence of a disease or condition solely through observation of the iris (See the scientific method ).
 * Isopathy
 * Joint manipulation
 * Magnet therapy Magnet therapy, or magnetic therapy, or magnotherapy is an alternative medicine claiming that certain medical disorders can be effectively treated by exposure to static magnetic fields. Scientific tests of magnetic therapy for the treatment of wrist pain from carpal tunnel syndrome and chronic low back pain have concluded that there is no health benefit from magnetic fields in those cases.
 * Medical intuitive In alternative medicine, a Medical Intuitive is a person who feels that they have learned to apply their intuition to finding the cause of a condition. There are medical professionals, health care workers, scientists and others who are skeptical of such abilities and probably just as many who favor and use their services.
 * Narconon is a Scientology front group which purports to rehabilitate drug addicts by means of saunas, very high doses of vitamins such as niacin, and Scientology 'training'.
 * Natural hygiene
 * Naturopathic medicine Naturopathic medicine is sometimes referred to as naturopathy.
 * Orthomolecular medicine
 * Osteopathy
 * Prayer healing Prayer (sometimes called orison) is an active effort to communicate with a deity or spirit either to offer praise, to make a request, seek guidance, confess sins, or simply to express one's thoughts and emotions. The words of the prayer may either be a set hymn or incantation, or a spontaneous utterance in the praying person's own words.
 * Radionics
 * Reflexology
 * Reiki
 * Spinal adjustment
 * Traditional Chinese medicine
 *  Vertebral subluxation remains unsubstantiated and largely untested, and a debate about whether to keep it in the chiropractic paradigm has been ongoing for decades. In general, critics of traditional subluxation-based chiropractic (including chiropractors) are skeptical of its clinical value, dogmatic beliefs and metaphysical approach.
 * Vision therapy
 * Vitalism
 * Vitamin O

Concepts and methods

 * The following is a list of subjects that are often criticized by the scientific community, in studies (scientifically unverified), from skeptics, or certain groups.


 * Amygdalin In 1974, the American Cancer Society officially labelled Amygdalin, also labeled along with its derivative mixtures, Laetrile, as "quackery," but advocates for Laetrile claim a series of historical misunderstandings and misrepresentations hinder accurate evaluation.
 * Aspartame controversy Aspartame has been the subject of a vigorous public controversy regarding its safety and the circumstances around its approval. A few studies have recommended further investigation into alleged connections between aspartame and diseases such as brain tumors, brain lesions, and lymphoma.  These findings, combined with notable conflicts of interest in the approval process, have engendered vocal activism regarding the possible risks of aspartame.
 * Aura (paranormal) In New Age belief, Aura refers to the energy field emanating from the surface of a person or object. This emanation is visualized as an outline of cascading color and may be held to represent soul vibrations, chakric emergence, or a reflection of surrounding energy fields. There is no scientific evidence for the existence of auras.
 * Azeztulite Azeztulite (or Satyaloka Azeztulite quartz) is a misleading trade name for inexpensive quartz that is sold at inflated prices for its alleged crystal healing effects. Quartz is one of the most common minerals in the Earth's continental crust. Azeztulite is an example of a fake mineral.
 * Bigfoot Bigfoot, also known as Sasquatch, is believed by some to be an ape-like cryptid and by skeptics to be the product of the imagination.
 * Biorhythm A biorhythm is a hypothetical cyclic pattern of alterations in physiology, emotions, and/or intellect. "Bio" pertains to life and "rhythm" pertains to the flow with regular movement.
 * Chakra
 * Colloidal silver Colloidal silver is a colloid of silver particles in water. It is also claimed by some to be a beneficial nutritional supplement and to be a powerful antibiotic. The ingestion of colloidal silver in large quantities or over a long period of time carries a high risk of argyria, a condition in which the skin turns permanently blue-gray.   Continued ingestion of high doses (more than 1 gram of accumulated silver, or 5 mg per day) of colloidal silver may result in argyria, an extremely rare condition causing a permanent discoloration of the skin.   A high-profile case of this is Stan Jones, a Montana Libertarian candidate for the U.S. Senate in 2002 and 2006, who overdosed on colloidal silver. The claims are anecdotal, and have not been confirmed  by scientific study. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) banned over-the-counter sales of colloidal silver products claiming therapeutic value, or their advertisement as providing health benefits.  The FDA has issued warnings to internet sites selling or promoting colloidal silver. If no health benefits are claimed, and colloidal silver is sold as a supplement, its sale is legal as long as the products comply with all other FDA regulations. In 2002, the Australian Therapeutic Goods Administration made a similar ruling.
 * Conspiracy theory A conspiracy theory attempts to explain the ultimate cause of an event or chain of events (usually political, social, or historical events) as a secret, and often deceptive, plot by a covert alliance of powerful or influential people or organizations. Many conspiracy theories claim that major events in history have been dominated by conspirators who manipulate political happenings from behind the scenes. The term "conspiracy theory" is used by mainstream scholars and in popular culture to identify a type of folklore similar to an urban legend, especially an explanatory narrative which is constructed with methodological flaws. The term is also used pejoratively to dismiss claims that are alleged by critics to be misconceived, paranoid, unfounded, outlandish, irrational, or otherwise unworthy of serious consideration. For example, "Conspiracy nut" and "conspiracy theorist" are used as pejorative terms. Some whose theories or speculations are labeled a "conspiracy theory" reject the term as prejudicial.
 * Coral calcium Coral Calcium is a salt of calcium derived from fossilized coral reefs. There have been many unsubstantiated claims made regarding coral calcium, perhaps the most controversial of which is that taking coral calcium can cure cancer by increasing "body pH." The FDA has prohibited disease treatments cures in advertising. Additionally, it can be dangerous for people with certain medical conditions (such as kidney failure) to take excess coral calcium.
 * Creation-evolution controversy  The creation-evolution controversy (also termed the creation vs. evolution debate or the origins debate) is a recurring dispute about the origins of the Earth, humanity, life, and the universe, a debate most prevalent in certain regions of the United States, where the mass media often portrays it as part of the culture wars or a supposed dispute between religion and science. The debate concerns what should be taught as science in schools. The creationists argue that both creationism and evolution are beliefs, and should be given equal weight in science classes. Leaders of the large established churches and the scientific community maintain that creationism is not science, and therefore has no place in a science class.
 * Crop circles Crop circles are geometrical formations of flattened crops found in England and elsewhere. They have been found in wheat, barley, canola, rye, corn, linseed and soy. A few of the people who made the elaborate field of circles said aliens from outer space carved messages in the crops. Today it is well known the designs were made by earthlings.
 * Cryonics
 * Dental amalgam controversy‎ Controversy exists regarding the use of mercury in dentistry, in dental fillings. A minority of dentists has always been opposed to amalgam use but evidence of adverse effects on patients from mercury in amalgam fillings is contradictory and there remains no conclusive evidence of measurable ill-effects despite the fact that amalgam has been in use for over 150 years and continues to be the most common material used in fillings. Overall, however, its use is declining due to improving dental health generally and increasing availability of new alternatives.
 * Dermo-optical perception Dermo-optical perception (DOP) refers to the supposed ability to see without using the eyes (as distinct from blindsight). Typically, people who claim to have dermo-optical perception claim to be able to see using the skin of their fingers or hands.  People who claim to have DOP often demonstrate it by reading while blindfolded.  Dermo-optical perception is sometimes referred to as bio-introscopy. DOP has been discredited as pseudoscience, and explainable by the use of magicians' tricks.
 * DHEA
 * Dietary supplements
 * Ear candling Ear candling, also called ear coning, is a folk medicine practice intended to remove earwax (cerumen) and "toxins" from a person's ear by means of a hollow candle placed in the ear. It involves placing one end of a hollow candle in the ear canal and lighting the other end. Proponents maintain the resulting vacuum can clean out the ear, but mainstream medical science discounts this theory due to lack of evidence supporting it.
 * Energy (spirituality)
 * Feng Shui
 * Food faddism Food faddism and fad diet are terms which refer to the tendency for idiosyncratic diets and eating patterns. A fad diet is supposed and promoted to improve health but may do nothing at all, or even have the opposite results if it is nutritionally unbalanced and unconfirmed by scientific studies.
 * Global warming controversy The global warming controversy primarily concerns what steps society should take in response to global warming, and whether it is in a country's economic interest to take action to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. There is a strong consensus among scientists that recent warming is caused by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases, and that warming will continue with serious consequences if emissions continue; only a few scientists disagree. Most of those skeptical scientists who disagree are not climate specialists such as a climatologist and some of them have been funded by ExxonMobil to create uncertainty. Outside the scientific community, there is a greater amount of opposition to these conclusions from some corporations, advocacy groups, politicians, and individuals (see global warming skeptics).
 * Grapefruit seed extract Grapefruit seed extract (GSE), also known as citrus seed extract, as a natural antimicrobial is not proven. Its effectiveness is scientifically unverified.  It has been claimed to have strong antimicrobial with proven activity against bacteria and fungi.  However, multiple studies have shown the efficacy of grapefruit seed extract as an antimicrobial is not demonstrated. Although GSE is promoted as a highly effective plant-based preservative by some natural personal care manufacturers, studies indicate the universal antimicrobial activity associated with GSE preparations is merely due to contamination with synthetic preservatives.
 * HGH controversies There are many controversies around the claims, products, and businesses related to the use of growth hormone as an anti-aging therapy. Most of this controversy falls into two categories. The first, claims of exaggerated, misleading, or unfounded assertions that real growth hormone treatment slows or reverses the effects of aging The second is the sale of products that fraudulently or misleadingly purport to be growth hormone or to increase the user's own secretion of natural human growth hormone to a beneficial degree. Solid medical evidence is harder to find, and appears to indicate mixed results. It is likely that there is some advantage, but it is also evident that benefits are being exaggerated by some for commercial gain. Chronic use of hGH is not well studied, except when used in children for acute growth deficiencies. A long term increase in colon cancer and Hodgkin's Disease has been observed in these cases.
 * Ionized bracelet Ionized bracelets, or ionic bracelets, are a type of metal jewelry purported to affect the chi of its wearer. The effect noticed by believers could very well have been the placebo effect. It is known, at least, that ionized bracelets have no significant effect on muscle pain relative to the placebo effect, despite claims to the contrary by manufacturers.
 * Journalism scandals Journalism scandals are high-profile incidents or acts, whether intentional or accidental, that run contrary to the 'ideal' mission of journalism: to report news events and issues accurately and fairly. Journalistic scandals include plagiarism, fabrication and omission of information, breaking the law or violating ethical rules, staging or altering the event being documented, or making substantial reporting or researching errors that result lead to libelous or defamatory statements.
 * Low-carbohydrate diet Low-carbohydrate diets or low carb diets are nutritional programs that advocate restricted carbohydrate consumption, based on research that ties consumption of certain carbohydrates with increased blood insulin levels, and overexposure to insulin with metabolic syndrome (the most recognized symptom of which is obesity). Under these dietary programs, foods high in digestible carbohydrates (sugars and starches) are limited or replaced with foods containing a higher percentage of proteins, fats, and/or fiber. In recent years, studies have expressed potential health risks with this type of diet.
 * Lunaception Lunaception is a form of birth control that depends upon the woman practicing it to align her menstrual cycle with the phases of the moon. The method was developed by Louise Lacey in 1974 through her book, "Lunaception : a feminine odyssey into fertility and contraception." The fundamental premise of the method is that nature and the universe are full of rhythms and cycles. Women can come into balance with their own fertility by paying attention to the evolutionary connection between menstruation and the moon. The method has never been tested under controlled scientific conditions and is therefore termed a pseudoscience.
 * Megavitamin therapy In nutrition and Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), the term megavitamin therapy is used by its proponents to describe the use of large amounts of vitamins, often many times greater than the recommended dietary allowance (RDA), to prevent or treat many types of diseases. Today it is an aspect of orthomolecular medicine that also employs other nutrients such as dietary minerals, enzymes, amino acids, essential fatty acids, natural antioxidants and fermentable dietary fiber for short chain fatty acids.  Historically megavitamin therapies have been stigmatized, proponents say unfairly, by mainstream medical organizations and their associates.
 * New Age New Age is a broad movement of late 20th century and contemporary Western culture, characterised by an individual eclectic approach to spiritual exploration.
 * Paraben Parabens are a group of chemicals widely used as preservatives in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. Parabens are effective preservatives in many types of formulas. These compounds are used primarily for their bacteriocidal and fungicidal properties.  They can be found in shampoos, commercial moisturizers, shaving gels, cleansing gels, personal lubricants, topical pharmaceuticals and toothpaste. They are also used as food additives. Some public interest organizations are skeptical about the safety of parabens regarding over both its carcinogenicity, as well as its estrogenic effect, being expressed over the continued use of parabens as preservatives, although the scientific community has disproven any correlation with cancer and mostly agree that any causation is improbable.    There is also significant scientific consensus that any estrogenic effect caused by the doses received from consumer products are insignificant when compared to natural estrogens and other xenoestrogens.
 * Parapsychology
 * Phrenology
 * Radioactive quackery Radioactive quackery refers to various products sold during the early 20th century, after the discovery of radioactivity, which promised radioactivity as a cure for various ills. It is now well known that radioactivity can actually be harmful and cause, among other things, cancer.
 * Snake oil (cryptography) In cryptography, snake oil is a term used to describe commercial cryptographic methods and products which are considered bogus or fraudulent. The name derives from snake oil, one type of quack medicine widely available in 19th Century United States.
 * Subtle body
 * Superstition A superstition is the irrational belief that future events are influenced by specific behaviors, without having a causal relationship.
 * Trans fat Most Trans fatty acids (commonly termed trans fats) consumed today are industrially created as a side effect of partial hydrogenation of plant oils — a process that changes a fat's molecular structure (raising its melting point and reducing rancidity) but this process also results in a proportion of the changed fat becoming trans fat. Unlike other fats, trans fats are neither required nor beneficial for health. Eating trans fat increases the risk of coronary heart disease. For these reasons, health authorities worldwide recommend that consumption of trans fat be reduced to trace amounts. Trans fats from partially hydrogenated oils are generally considered to be more of a health risk than those occurring naturally.
 * Trepanation
 * UFO conspiracy theory A UFO conspiracy theory is any one of many often overlapping conspiracy theories which argue that evidence of the reality of unidentified flying objects is being suppressed. Such theories often incorporate the idea that governments are in fact in communication or cooperation with extraterrestrials. Some of these theories claim that the government is explicitly allowing alien abduction in exchange for technology. Though widely known amongst the general public (and a staple of some types of fiction, such as the X Files), such ideas have seen little support from mainstream society.
 * Urban legends An urban legend is a kind of modern folklore consisting of stories often thought to be factual by those circulating them. The term is often used with a meaning similar to the expression "apocryphal story." Urban legends are not necessarily untrue, but they are often false, distorted, exaggerated, or sensationalized. Despite the name, urban legends do not necessarily take place in an urban setting. The name is designed to differentiate them from traditional folklore in preindustrial times.
 * Vaccine controversy The practice of vaccination has been opposed by some since its inception in the late 18th century, but criticism has become more visible in the US and some other developed countries in recent years, roughly paralleling the widespread availability of online information. While positions vary from outright rejection of the practice to calls for more selective and cautious use of vaccination, some of the following arguments are typically invoked are: Critics claim that the public health benefits of vaccinations are exaggerated. They further claim that the mortality rates of some illnesses were already dramatically reduced before vaccines were introduced, and claim that further reductions cannot immediately be attributed to vaccines. Additionally, secondary and long-term effects on the immune system from introducing immunogens and adjuvants directly into the body are not fully understood. Some autoimmune diseases like Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, Guillain-Barré syndrome, Transverse myelitis and multiple sclerosis are known to be connected to vaccines, which suggests other autoimmune disorders might also be vaccine-related.
 * Water fluoridation controversy Water fluoridation controversy refers to the debate surrounding the health benefits of public authorities fluoridating water supplies. Calcium fluoride is a naturally-occurring mineral found in all water sources, such as lakes, rivers, groundwater and oceans.  Community water fluoridation is the process of artificially adjusting fluoride levels in drinking water supplies with the intention of improving oral health.  This is usually done by the addition of sodium fluoride, sodium fluorosilicate, or fluorosilicic acid.
 * Yin and yang The concepts of Yin and Yang originate in ancient Chinese philosophy and metaphysics, which describes two primal opposing but complementary forces found in all things in the universe. In Western culture, Yin and Yang are often inaccurately portrayed as corresponding to "evil" and "good" respectively.

Phraseology

 * The following is a list of words that have been used on the receiving end of accusations, on the accusing end, or on the study end of skepticism debates, hence its inclusion of various terms in regard to phrases of logic and thought processes. Additionally, there are various words that are within the framework of skepticism topics.


 * Ad hominem An ad hominem argument, also known as argumentum ad hominem (Latin: "argument to the person", "argument against the man") is a logical fallacy consisting of replying to an argument by attacking or appealing to the person making the argument, rather than by addressing the substance of the argument. It is most commonly used to refer specifically to the ad hominem abusive, or argumentum ad personam, which consists of criticizing or personally attacking an argument's proponent in an attempt to discredit that argument.
 * Anecdotal evidence Information passed along by word-of-mouth but not documented scientifically is anecdotal evidence. In science, anecdotal evidence has been defined as: "information that is not based on facts or careful study" or "non-scientific observations or studies, which do not provide proof but may assist research efforts" or "reports or observations of usually unscientific observers" or "casual observations or indications rather than rigorous or scientific analysis"
 * Anti-intellectualism Anti-intellectualism describes a sentiment of hostility towards, or mistrust of, intellectuals and intellectual pursuits. This may be expressed in various ways, such as an attack on the merits of science, education, or literature. Anti-intellectuals often perceive themselves as champions of the ordinary people and egalitarianism against elitism, especially academic elitism.  These critics argue that heavily educated people form an insular social class that tends to dominate political discourse and higher education (academia).
 * Antiscience Antiscience is a position critical of science and the scientific method. It has been considered the "self-defeating...essentially anti-intellectual, rhetoric of many activists."
 * Charlatan A charlatan is a person practicing quackery or some similar confidence trick in order to obtain money or advantage by false pretenses. If the ascription is false, then "charlatan" is derogative; if it is true, then the description "charlatan" is not defamation.
 * Confirmation bias In psychology and cognitive science, confirmation bias (or confirmatory bias) is a tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions, leading to statistical errors. Confirmation bias is a type of cognitive bias and represents an error of inductive inference toward confirmation of the hypothesis under study.
 * Consciousness causes collapse Consciousness causes collapse is the theory that observation by a conscious observer is responsible for the wavefunction collapse in quantum mechanics. It is an attempt to solve the Wigner's friend paradox by simply stating that collapse occurs at the first "conscious" observer. Supporters claim this is not a revival of substance dualism, since (in a ramification of this view) consciousness and objects are entangled and cannot be considered as separate. Nevertheless, the doctrine that the world is made up of objects whose existence is independent of human consciousness turns out to be in conflict with Quantum Mechanics and with facts established by experiment."
 * Controversial science The phrase controversial science describes ideas and theories at odds with mainstream science. These ideas have often been advanced by individuals either from outside the field of science, or by scientists outside the mainstream of their own disciplines.
 * Crank (person) "Crank" is a pejorative term for a person who holds some belief which the vast majority of his contemporaries would consider false, clings to this belief in the face of all counterarguments or evidence presented to him. The term implies that a "cranky" belief is so wildly at variance with some commonly accepted truth as to be ludicrous, arguing with the crank is useless, because he will invariably dismiss all evidence or arguments which contradict his cranky belief. Common synonyms for "crank" include kook and crackpot.
 * Folk science
 * Fraud In the broadest sense, a fraud is a deception made for personal gain. The specific legal definition varies by legal jurisdiction. Fraud is a crime, and is also a civil law violation. Many hoaxes are fraudulent, although those not made for personal gain are not technically frauds. Defrauding people of money is presumably the most common type of fraud, but there have also been many fraudulent "discoveries" in art, archaeology, and science.
 * Fringe science Fringe science is a phrase used to describe scientific inquiry in an established field that departs significantly from mainstream or orthodox theories.
 * Intellectual dishonesty Intellectual dishonesty is the advocacy of a position known to be false. Rhetoric is used to advance an agenda or to reinforce one's deeply held beliefs in the face of overwhelming contrary evidence. If a person is aware of the evidence and the conclusion it portends, yet holds a contradictory view, it is intellectual dishonesty.  If the person is unaware of the evidence, their position is ignorance, even if in agreement with the scientific conclusion.
 * Junk science
 * Logical fallacy
 * Pejorative
 * Pathological science Pathological science is a neologism that describes the process in science in which people are tricked into false results by subjective effects, wishful thinking or threshold interactions. It found resonance among skeptical scientists, who enjoy debunking recurrent pseudoscientific views and claims.
 * Plagiarism Plagiarism is the practice of claiming, or implying, original authorship, or incorporating material from someone else's written or creative work in whole or in part, into ones own, without adequate acknowledgment. The written or creative work which is plagiarized may be a book, article, musical score, film script, or other work. Unlike cases of forgery, in which the authenticity of the writing, document, or some other kind of object, itself is in question, plagiarism is concerned with the issue of false attribution.
 * Pseudoscience Pseudoscience, or junk science, is any body of knowledge, methodology, belief, or practice that claims to be scientific but does not follow the scientific method. Pseudosciences may appear scientific, but they do not adhere to the testability requirement of the scientific method and are often in conflict with current scientific consensus.
 * Pseudoskepticism
 * Quackery Quackery is a derogatory term that is defined as the "medical practice and advice based on observation and experience in ignorance of scientific findings. The dishonesty of a charlatan." A "quack" is "a fraudulent or ignorant pretender to medical skill. A person who pretends, professionally or publicly, to have skill, knowledge, or qualifications he or she does not possess; a charlatan." "Health fraud" is often used as a synonym for quackery, but this use can be problematic, since quackery can exist without fraud, a word which always implies deliberate deception. The word "quack" derives from "quacksalver," an archaic word originally of Dutch origin (spelled kwakzalver in contemporary Dutch), meaning "boaster who applies a salve." The correct meaning of the German  word "quacksalber" is "questionable salesperson (literal translation: quack salver)." In the Middle Ages the word quack itself meant "shouting. The quacksalvers sold their wares on the market shouting in a loud voice."
 * Scientific misconduct
 * Self-deception Self-deception is a process of denying or rationalizing away the relevance, significance, or importance of opposing evidence and logical argument. When one can believe their own "lie" (i.e., their presentation that is biased toward their own self-interest), the theory goes, they will consequently be better able to persuade others of its "truth." Self-deception enables someone to believe their distortions, and they will not present such signs of deception and will therefore appear to be telling the truth.
 * Self-serving bias A self-serving bias occurs when people are more likely to claim responsibility for successes than failures. It may also manifest itself as a tendency for people to evaluate ambiguous information in a way beneficial to their interests. This happens in a way that could be unknown consciously to the person, flattering their own views.
 * Skepticism In ordinary usage, skepticism or scepticism (UK spelling) refers to an attitude of doubt or a disposition to incredulity either in general or toward a particular object, the doctrine that true knowledge or knowledge in a particular area is uncertain, or the method of suspended judgment, systematic doubt, or criticism that is characteristic of skeptics (Merriam–Webster). In philosophy, skepticism refers more specifically to any one of several propositions. These include propositions about the limitations of knowledge, a method of obtaining knowledge through systematic doubt and continual testing, the arbitrariness, relativity, or subjectivity of moral values, a method of intellectual caution and suspended judgment, a lack of confidence in positive motives for human conduct or positive outcomes for human enterprises, that is, cynicism and pessimism (Keeton, 1962).
 * Straw man
 * True-believer syndrome True-believer syndrome is a term used by skeptics to describe an irrational, persistent belief in the paranormal or concepts that have been proven by science to be false and unverified.
 * Wishful thinking Wishful thinking is the formation of beliefs and making decisions according to what might be pleasing to imagine instead of by appealing to evidence or rationality.

Organizations, journals, books, etc.

 * American Council on Science and Health
 * Australian Skeptics
 * Better Business Bureau
 * Center for Inquiry
 * Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
 * Committee for Skeptical Inquiry
 * Consumer Product Safety Commission
 * Environmental Protection Agency
 * Federal Trade Commission
 * Food and Drug Administration
 * Food and Water Watch
 * Journal of Scientific Exploration
 * Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency
 * National Consumers League
 * National Council Against Health Fraud
 * Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine‎
 * Quackwatch
 * Skeptical Inquirer
 * Skeptic's Dictionary
 * U.S. National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine
 * The Weston A. Price Foundation

Related categories

 * Category:Confidence tricks
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