Yanesha' language

Yanesha' (Yaneshac̈h/Yanešač̣; literally 'we the people'), also called Amuesha or Amoesha is a language spoken by the Amuesha people of Peru in central and eastern Pasco Region.

Due to the influence and domination of the Inca Empire, Yanesha' has many loanwords from Quechua, including some core vocabulary. Yanesha' may also have been influenced by Quechua's vowel system so that, today, it has a three-vowel system rather than a four-vowel one that is typical of related Arawakan languages. There are also many loanwords from Kampa languages.

Phonology
Yanesha' has 26 consonants and 9 vowel phonemes. The consonants have a certain degree of allophonic variation while that of the vowels is more considerable.

Consonants

 * 1) The affricates and are phonetically aspirated
 * 2) is an allophone of  before

Yanesha', similar to languages like Russian, Irish, and Marshallese, makes contrasts between certain pairs of palatalized and plain consonants:


 * anajp̃ he answered him vs. anajp  he answered
 * esho'ta netsorram̃o entered my saw vs. esho'ta nenamo  entered my mouth
 * ña he vs. na  I

The remaining two palatalized consonants, and, don't offer a one-to-one contrast with plain consonants; the former because it is the only lateral consonant and so contrasts with no other phoneme on the basis of just palatalization; , while contrasting with , also contrasts with , , and. The bilabial palatalized consonants have a more perceptible palatal offglide than the alveolar ones. Word-finally, this offglide is voiceless for and  while being absent for.

Another general feature of Yanesha' is devoicing in certain contexts. In addition to the devoicing of palatal offglides above, the retroflex fricative is voiceless when word final (final devoicing) or before a voiceless consonant (regressive assimilation): arrpa  here it is →. The approximants and  are voiceless before voiceless stops, as in huautena  barks and neytarr  my door;  is also voiceless before affricates and word-finally: ahuey  let's go.

Similarly, the stops, , and  are aspirated word-finally ellap  shotgun → ; preceding another stop or an affricate, a stop may be aspirated or unreleased so that etquëll  ('a fish') is realized as  or. The velar fricative is debuccalized to  before another consonant.

Vowels
Yanesha' has three basic vowel qualities,, , and. Each contrasts phonemically between short, long, and "laryngeal" or glottalized forms as.

Laryngealization generally consists of glottalization of the vowel in question, creating a kind of creaky voice. In pre-final contexts, a variation occurs—especially before voiced consonants—ranging from creaky phonation throughout the vowel to a sequence of a vowel, glottal stop, and a slightly rearticulated vowel: ma'ñorr deer →. Before a word-final nasal, this rearticulated vowel may be realized as a syllabic quality of said nasal. Also, although not as long as a phonemically long vowel, laryngeal vowels are generally longer than short ones. When absolutely word-final, laryngealized vowels differ from short ones only by the presence of a following glottal stop.

Each vowel varies in its phonetic qualities, having contextual allophones as well as phones in free variation with each other:

is the short phoneme consisting of phones that are front and close to close-mid. Generally, it is realized as close when following bilabial consonants. Otherwise, the phones and  are in free variation with each other so that  ('my brother') may be realized as either  or.

is the long counterpart to. It differs almost solely in its length, although when it follows it becomes a sort of diphthong with the first element being identical in vowel height while being more retracted so that quë'  large kind of parrot is realized as.

Laryngeal consists of the same variation and allophony of the short phoneme with the minor exception that it is more likely to be realized as close following  as in pe'sherr  parakeet →.

is the short phoneme consisting of phones that are central. Its most frequent realization is that of an open central unrounded vowel (represented hereafter without the centralizing diacritic). Before, there is free variation between this and so that nanac  exceedingly may be realized as  or. While the laryngeal counterpart is qualitatively identical to the short, the long counterpart,, differs only in that is not a potential realization.

is the short phoneme consisting of phones that are back as well as rounded. Generally, and  are in free variation so that oyua  wild pig may be realized as  or. The phone is another potential realization, although it most frequently occurs before stops so that not  my hand may be realized as. is not a potential realization of long but both the long and laryngeal counterparts are otherwise qualitatively identical to short.

Phonotactics
All consonants appear initially, medially, and finally with the exception that and  do not occur word-finally. With two exceptions ( and ), initial clusters include at least one stop. The other possible initial clusters are:

Word final clusters consist of either a nasal or followed by a plosive or affricate:

Medial clusters may be of two or three consonants.

Stress
Although apparently phonemic, stress tends to occur on the penultimate syllable but also in the ultimate. Less frequently, it is antepenultimate. Some words, like oc̈hen comb, have stress in free variation.

Lexicography
A Yanesha' Talking Dictionary was produced by Living Tongues Institute for Endangered Languages.