Draft:Mark Brezinski

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  • Comment: Most of the sources are to his own publications. S0091 (talk) 20:20, 15 January 2024 (UTC)

General[edit]

Mark Brezinski MD, PhD was born in the coal mining town of Nanticoke, Pennsylvania. He is best known for achieving Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) imaging in nontransparent tissue (including coronary arteries), when previous groups had failed, but his research achievements extend beyond OCT[1]. He has spent most of his career at Harvard, MIT, Massachusetts Hospital, and Brigham and Women’s Hospital (greater than 25 years). He is a basic scientist, engineer, physician, quantum physicist, and medical educator. He not only trained with Allen Lefer PhD (Thomas Jefferson University) and Charles Serhan PhD (Harvard Medical School), but Nobel Laureates including Bengt Samuelsson PhD and E.J. Corey PhD. He did his residency at Brigham and Women’s Hospital (BWH) and his cardiology fellowship at Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH), where he would ultimately become an attending first at MGH then BWH. He has had approximately 15 NIH RO1s, at times having five at one time. He has published approximately 150 papers. He has been on approximately 80 grant review committees including the NIH, NSF, Department of Energy, and Congressional Women’s Health Initiative. He is the winner of numerous awards including the Presidential Award for Scientists and Engineers, Young Investigator Award from the America Heart Association, and Outstanding Investigator in the 100 Year History of Brigham and Women’s Hospital.

Pre-OCT Work (1984-1993)[edit]

He began doing formal research in 1984, with a focus on studying thromboxane inhibition in the treatment of myocardial infarction (MI)[2] . This area is now being reexamined for replacing aspirin with thromboxane receptor antagonists to prevent MI. He also has a strong background in quantum mechanics then fiber optic engineering. In addition, he did some of the earliest work on lipoxins [3]. In 1990, prior to his OCT work, he identified a downregulation mechanism of inflammatory cells (membrane incorporation of 15-HETE) published in PNAS.[4] Not only was this important from a mechanistic standpoint, but 15-HETE analogs are being studied as anti-inflammatories including COVID infections.

OCT Work (1993-2000)[edit]

Dr. Brezinski has been doing OCT research for 30 years. His basic science background was critical in the rapid acceleration of the OCT field. Hypothesis driven work had been lacking. As of 1993, attempts at OCT imaging of non-transparent tissue had failed. Dr. Brezinski, looking for a method to detect vulnerable plaque, successfully predicted OCT would work by using 1300 nm (rather than 850 nm used in the eye) after analyzing scattering/absorption data in human tissue. Specifically, Dr. Brezinski found and analyzed absorption/scattering data was from a 1989 from Parsa et.al. on the optical properties of liver.[5] Scattering isn’t a major concern for the eye but is for the rest of the tissue of the body. An optical window (low scattering and absorption) exists at 1300 nm. But 1300 nm can not be used in the eye as imaging through centimeters of water to reach the retina would heat the eye. The work was published in 1996 and as Dr. Brezinski was a basic scientist, it appears to be the first hypothesis driven quantitative OCT paper.[1] Imaging included not only vulnerable plaque but respiratory tissue (at both wavelengths) as well as bone and fat. Important to the success was the first micron scale matching of images to histopathology, which was achieved by an approach developed by Dr. Brezinski and pathologist James Southern MD,PhD. Barriers to in vivo use included the need for a catheter/endoscope and increase frame rate. 1. Most OCT technology advances were incremental and adapting optical advances from telecommunication. The development of the OCT imaging catheter/endoscope had no significant prior art and may be the most paradigm shifting (and difficult) OCT technological advance.[6] It had the only major OCT patent not circumvented (Patent Number:6,134,003). For example, companies began selling OCT microscope systems before 2005, but could not sell catheters. A schematic of the basic catheter design is shown in the figure. The fiber optics are encased in a transparent external sheath for both protection and stiffness to control position. The distal end consists of a focusing element (GRIN lens) and a light directing element (prism). These are rotated with a speedometer cable to allow circumferential imaging. The technical challenge was the proximal end. A non-rotating optical fiber with sheath comes out of the OCT imaging engine while the portion in the patient is rotating via the speedometer cable. The challenge is alignment of the 8 µm cores of the 125 µm fibers (one rotating) across a free space. 2. Frame rate was gradually increased, primarily by incorporating techniques from fiberoptic telecommunication (ex: SS-OCT, grading based delay line, fiber stretching, etc). To test these embodiments and speed up development, Dr. Brezinski built Zebrafish and tadpole colonies using their beating heart to assess frame rates. A grading based delay line was ultimately used for in vivo studies until being replaced by SS-OCT after 2005.

With these advances, the first demonstration of endoscopic OCT was reported in 1997 in the respiratory and gastrointestinal systems of a rabbit. The first demonstration of intravascular imaging was done in 1999, where blood had to be flushed out of the field.[7] Dr. Brezinski directly compared OCT with IVUS, demonstrating the superiority of the former.[8] The first TD-OCT imaging catheter and system was commercialized by LightLab Imaging, Inc., formed in 1997 by Prof. Fujimoto, Mr. Swanson, and Dr. Brezinski. In 2001, Dr. Brezinski developed index matching to allow imaging through blood.[9] Intracoronary imaging in humans was achieved in 2003 by the Tearney and Bouma group.[10] Dr. Brezinski and Professor Fujimoto could not pursue in vivo human imaging because of COI. OCT systems began selling significantly in 2007. Lightlab Imaging is now owned by Abbott labs who has run double blind prospective trials showing morbidity and mortality benefits.[11] "Among patients with complex coronary-artery bifurcation lesions, OCT-guided PCI was associated with a lower incidence of MACE at 2 years than angiography-guided PCI." A list of studies can be found on the Abbott web site.[12] The only significant differences between the original LightLab system and those used in the clinical trials, besides using SS-OCT, is a rapid catheter attachment system to the OCT engine. Many advances which have been developed since 2000 which have not been incorporate in vivo by clinicians or in clinical trials. This includes PS-OCT, OCT elastography, and an OCT guidewire. Since 1993, he has advanced OCT through basic science, engineering, clinical trials, quantum physics, and classical physics. His major areas of OCT research are cardiology, osteoarthritis, quantum field theory of OCT, and adjuvant OCT techniques (PS-OCT, elastography, second order correlation spectroscopy).

Other Fields[edit]

Prior to 2000, Dr. Brezinski (with James Fujimoto PhD) would be the first to demonstrate OCT imaging for osteoarthritis (OA, discussed below), cervical cancer, esophageal cancer, bladder cancer, microsurgical guidance, breast cancer, prostate cancer, nerve repair, and tissue engineering.

OCT in the Diagnosis of Pre-Osteoarthritis (Pre-OA)[edit]

Dr. Brezinski has also done extensive work with OCT in diagnosing pre-OA, OA at reversible stages, in collaboration with orthopedic surgeon Scott Martin MD. This work spans more than 25 years. Initial work in the 1990s showed that OCT could diagnose early OA, but PS-OCT could diagnose pre-OA.[13] [14] Pre-OA here is cartilage normal by visualization or MRI, believed to be at reversible stages. PS-OCT is identifying collagen disorganization. The first in vivo study was in patients undergoing knee replacement.[15] Dr. Brezinski would continue this work in the new millennium with most recently a double blind clinical trial in 2022.[16] In this trial in patients undergoing arthroscopic meniscal surgery, abnormal PS-OCT predicted the onset of OA in 2.8 years.

OCT Work (2000-present)[edit]

General[edit]

After 2000, building his own OCT systems at Brigham and Women’s Hospital, he would go on to produce many of the most important OCT papers for the next 20 years, including inventing quantum second order correlation spectroscopy. Again, because of his IP (and owning LightLab), he could not participate in cardiac clinical trials because of COI. His collaboration with James Fujimoto PhD would be sporadic as they moved into different areas. He was continuously funded for more than 20 years, at times having five simultaneous NIH RO1s. He is the author of the Textbook of OCT where he wrote all chapters (physics, engineering, and clinical applications) except the clinical trials chapter.[17]

PS-OCT[edit]

Polarization sensitive OCT (PS-OCT) differentiates organized regions of collagen from disorganized. Dr. Brezinski began working with single channel PS-OCT prior to 2000 with manuscripts on cartilage, diagnosing pre-OA. Dr. Brezinski’s group is the only group that uses single channel PS-OCT, which measures relative rather than quantitative PS-OCT like dual channel. His group compared both approaches and found single channel was less susceptible to artifact.[18] Dr. Brezinski has used single channel PS-OCT in multiple in vivo human intraarticular joint studies described above. In 2006, Dr. Brezinski demonstrated PS-OCT could differentiate, in coronary arteries with atherosclerosis, organized from disorganized collagen.[19]

Elastography[edit]

OCT elastography measures the mechanical properties of tissue without tissue contact. OCT images are performed with and without applied pressure. The differences in the OCT image at the two pressures, after image processing, yields the elastic modulus. The pressure can be applied with many approaches including ultrasound or blood pressure variations. Three papers by Dr. Brezinski are particularly notable. He published the first demonstration of OCT elastography in arteries.[20] The second paper refined the technique by establishing the elastic modulus with tissue phantoms as well as arteries.[21] Different weights were applied and the amount of compression measured with calipers and OCT. Once the modulus was defined for phantoms and arteries, OCT elastography was performed to calibrate the technique. The third paper demonstrated when changing applied pressures, the tissue needs to reach steady state (the tissue response is not immediate) so pulsed techniques are unlikely to be accurate.[22]

. In addition, this paper calculates the pressure of IVUS ultrasound far exceeds the elastic modulus of the tissue, estimating IVUS elastography is not a viable technique.

Ultrasound Modulated OCT[edit]

In the first article in PNAS, Dr. Brezinski demonstrated the use of a parallel ultrasound beam with OCT.[23] This improves penetration and image quality. The theoretical basis is discussed in the paper. The second paper is in the Journal of the Optical Society of America.[24] This is a quantitative paper looking at different ultrasound frequencies and amplitudes. The work showed photon - phonon interaction behaves similar to the photoelectric effect rather than the classical linear responses expected.

Quantum Field Theory of OCT[edit]

Dr. Brezinski published “A Quantum Field Approach for Advancing Optical Coherence Tomography Part I: First Order Correlations, Single Photon Interference, and Quantum Noise”. This is the only work examining the quantum physics of OCT. Parallels exist with work on detection of gravitational waves. OCT operates by first order correlations from a quantum mechanics viewpoint, where single photons interfere with themselves along indistinguishable paths (more accurately the paths interfere).

Technology Advances[edit]

In addition to the technology advances already described, Dr. Brezinski would advance SS-OCT technology.[25] He demonstrated that SS-OCT had worse dynamic range than TD-OCT. He would then move on to partially improving this true logarithmic amplification, which is patented (US 2013/0182259 A1).[26]

SOC spectroscopy will be discussed below as it is not OCT, but can be used simultaneously with OCT.

Other Areas of Dr. Brezinski’s Research[edit]

Acute Coronary Syndromes (ACS) Pathophysiology[edit]

Dr. Brezinski has studied ACS and coronary plaque pathophysiology since 1984. Three papers written in this millennium will be emphasized here. The first involved an OCT case study and then analysis of prior histopathology.[27] The patient had PCI for ACS where an acute coronary occlusion occurred just after stent placement, but millimeters distal to the stent and original culprit lesion. There were two ruptured TCFAs in the imaging, the culprit lesion and one distal without a clot. The target lesion was associated with a long necrotic core while the other TCFA was not. The long core was evacuated on stent placement (which penetrated the intima), leading to the distal clot. Till this time the Brezinski group and other groups focused on plaque in cross section. The conclusion of the paper was that TCFAs associated with long necrotic cores were more prone too ACS. Subsequently, Dr. Brezinski’s group and groups analyzing OCT registries began including measures of core length. As long core evacuation is uncommon, the mechanism why long cores are associated with ACS remained unclear. In a paper in early 2019, Dr. Brezinski proposed long cores lead to failed healing after plaque rupture or erosion.[28] Related to the second paper, for 30 years, based originally on a 1980s NEJM paper, it was believed plaque angiogenesis destabilized coronary plaque and increased the risk of MI. So in a second paper published in Circulation (December 2019), analyzing coronary histopathology and the data from the original NEJM paper, Dr. Brezinski proposed angiogenesis was critical in stabilizing and not destabilizing plaque.[29] This was supported by data from patients receiving angiogenesis inhibitors who have an increased, and not decreased, risk of coronary thrombosis. When a plaque ruptures, it takes days to more than a week for a clot to be occlusive. If the vessel wall contains specialized smooth muscle cells and endothelium, they enter the clot and stabilize it preventing MI. If the region lacks angiogenesis, which comes from the adventitia and can not penetrate necrotic cores, there is no cellularity to stabilize the clot. The proposed mechanism of plaques which lead to ACS is that they have a long necrotic core (or similar obstruction) which prevents angiogenesis from reaching areas of the intimal surface. Cellularity is lost and on plaque rupture (erosion) the thrombus grows to the point of occlusion.

Quantum Thermal Second Order Correlation Spectroscopy[edit]

Thermal second order correlations (SOC), thermal source produced photon pairs interfering with themselves along indistinguishable paths, has been treated classically till recently. These are removed in OCT systems via dual balanced detections as they are viewed as a noise source. In an article in Physical Review A, Dr. Brezinski demonstrated that these SOC have quantum mechanical properties and can be used to characterize tissue, specially lipid versus water-based tissue.[30] A patent has been issued of a more practical design, but experimental results from this system have been presented but not published (US 9.234,840 B2).

COVID YEARS[edit]

Between 2000 and 2003, Dr. Brezinski’s research efforts were greatly reduced as he worked full time taking care of inpatient COVID patients.

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b Brezinski, Mark E.; Tearney, Guillermo J.; Bouma, Brett E.; Izatt, Joseph A.; Hee, Michael R.; Swanson, Eric A.; Southern, James F.; Fujimoto, James G. (1996-03-15). "Optical Coherence Tomography for Optical Biopsy: Properties and Demonstration of Vascular Pathology". Circulation. 93 (6): 1206–1213. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.93.6.1206. ISSN 0009-7322. PMID 8653843.
  2. ^ Brezinski, Mark E.; Yanagisawa, Atsuo; Darius, Harald; Lefer, Allan M. (December 1985). "Anti-ischemic actions of a new throm☐ane receptor antagonist during acute myocardial ischemia in cats". American Heart Journal. 110 (6): 1161–1167. doi:10.1016/0002-8703(85)90006-7. PMID 3000159.
  3. ^ Brezinski, Mark E.; Gimbrone, Michael A.; Nicolaou, K.C.; Serhan, Charles N. (1989-03-13). "Lipoxins stimulate prostacyclin generation by human endothelial cells". FEBS Letters. 245 (1–2): 167–172. doi:10.1016/0014-5793(89)80214-5. ISSN 0014-5793. PMID 2494071.
  4. ^ Brezinski, M E; Serhan, C N (August 1990). "Selective incorporation of (15S)-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid in phosphatidylinositol of human neutrophils: agonist-induced deacylation and transformation of stored hydroxyeicosanoids". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 87 (16): 6248–6252. Bibcode:1990PNAS...87.6248B. doi:10.1073/pnas.87.16.6248. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 54510. PMID 2117277.
  5. ^ Parsa, Parwane; Jacques, Steven L.; Nishioka, Norman S. (1989-06-15). "Optical properties of rat liver between 350 and 2200 nm". Applied Optics. 28 (12): 2325–2330. Bibcode:1989ApOpt..28.2325P. doi:10.1364/AO.28.002325. ISSN 2155-3165. PMID 20555519.
  6. ^ Tearney, Guillermo J.; Brezinski, Mark E.; Bouma, Brett E.; Boppart, Stephen A.; Pitris, Costas; Southern, James F.; Fujimoto, James G. (1997-06-27). "In Vivo Endoscopic Optical Biopsy with Optical Coherence Tomography". Science. 276 (5321): 2037–2039. doi:10.1126/science.276.5321.2037. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 9197265.
  7. ^ Fujimoto, J. G.; Boppart, S. A.; Tearney, G. J.; Bouma, B. E.; Pitris, C.; Brezinski, M. E. (1999-08-01). "High resolution in vivo intra-arterial imaging with optical coherence tomography". Heart. 82 (2): 128–133. doi:10.1136/hrt.82.2.128. ISSN 1355-6037. PMC 1729132. PMID 10409522.
  8. ^ Brezinski, M. E.; Tearney, G. J.; Weissman, N. J.; Boppart, S. A.; Bouma, B. E.; Hee, M. R.; Weyman, A. E.; Swanson, E. A.; Southern, J. F.; Fujimoto, J. G. (1997-05-01). "Assessing atherosclerotic plaque morphology: comparison of optical coherence tomography and high frequency intravascular ultrasound". Heart. 77 (5): 397–403. doi:10.1136/hrt.77.5.397. ISSN 1355-6037. PMC 484757. PMID 9196405.
  9. ^ Brezinski, Mark; Saunders, Kathleen; Jesser, Christine; Li, Xingde; Fujimoto, James (2001-04-17). "Index Matching to Improve Optical Coherence Tomography Imaging Through Blood". Circulation. 103 (15): 1999–2003. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.103.15.1999. ISSN 0009-7322. PMID 11306530.
  10. ^ Bouma, B E (2003-03-01). "Evaluation of intracoronary stenting by intravascular optical coherence tomography". Heart. 89 (3): 317–320. doi:10.1136/heart.89.3.317. PMC 1767586. PMID 12591841.
  11. ^ Holm, Niels R.; Andreasen, Lene N.; Neghabat, Omeed; Laanmets, Peep; Kumsars, Indulis; Bennett, Johan; Olsen, Niels T.; Odenstedt, Jacob; Hoffmann, Pavel; Dens, Jo; Chowdhary, Saqib; O’Kane, Peter; Bülow Rasmussen, Søren-Haldur; Heigert, Matthias; Havndrup, Ole (2023-10-19). "OCT or Angiography Guidance for PCI in Complex Bifurcation Lesions". New England Journal of Medicine. 389 (16): 1477–1487. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2307770. ISSN 0028-4793. PMID 37634149. S2CID 261231045.
  12. ^ "Intravascular Imaging Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) Clinical Outcomes | Abbott". www.cardiovascular.abbott. Retrieved 2024-01-08.
  13. ^ Herrmann, Juergen M.; Pitris, Costas; Bouma, Brett E.; Boppart, Stephen A.; Fujimoto, James G.; Brezinski, Mark E. (1998). "Two and Three Dimensional Imaging of Normal and Osteoarthritic Cartilage Microstructure with Optical Coherence Tomography". Advances in Optical Imaging and Photon Migration. Washington, D.C.: OSA: ATuD3. doi:10.1364/aoipm.1998.atud3. ISBN 1-55752-546-3.
  14. ^ Drexler, W.; Stamper, D.; Jesser, C.; Li, X.; Pitris, C.; Saunders, K.; Martin, S.; Lodge, M. B.; Fujimoto, J. G.; Brezinski, M. E. (2001-06-01). "Correlation of collagen organization with polarization sensitive imaging of in vitro cartilage: implications for osteoarthritis". The Journal of Rheumatology. 28 (6): 1311–1318. ISSN 0315-162X. PMID 11409125.
  15. ^ Li, Xingde; Martin, Scott; Pitris, Costas; Ghanta, Ravi; Stamper, Debra L.; Harman, Michelle; Fujimoto, James G.; Brezinski, Mark E. (2005-01-17). "High-resolution optical coherence tomographic imaging of osteoarthritic cartilage during open knee surgery". Arthritis Res Ther. 7 (2): R318-23. doi:10.1186/ar1491. ISSN 1478-6354. PMC 1065329. PMID 15743479.
  16. ^ Martin, S.; Rashidifard, C.; Norris, D.; Goncalves, A.; Vercollone, C.; Brezinski, M.E. (December 2022). "Minimally Invasive Polarization Sensitive Optical Coherence Tomography (PS-OCT) for assessing Pre-OA, a pilot study on technical feasibility". Osteoarthritis and Cartilage Open. 4 (4): 100313. doi:10.1016/j.ocarto.2022.100313. ISSN 2665-9131. PMC 9576017. PMID 36263247.
  17. ^ Brezinski, Mark E. (2006). Optical coherence tomography: principles and applications. Amsterdam Boston: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-133570-0.
  18. ^ Zheng, Kathy; Rashidifard, Christopher; Liu, Bin; Brezinski, Mark (2009-05-11). "Comparison of artifact generation with catheter bending using different PS-OCT approaches". Reports in Medical Imaging. 2: 49–54. doi:10.2147/RMI.S4389.
  19. ^ Giattina, Susanne D.; Courtney, Brian K.; Herz, Paul R.; Harman, Michelle; Shortkroff, Sonya; Stamper, Debra L.; Liu, Bin; Fujimoto, James G.; Brezinski, Mark E. (March 2006). "Assessment of coronary plaque collagen with polarization sensitive optical coherence tomography (PS-OCT)". International Journal of Cardiology. 107 (3): 400–409. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2005.11.036. PMID 16434114.
  20. ^ Rogowska, J.; Patel, N. A.; Fujimoto, J. G.; Brezinski, M. E. (2004-05-01). "Optical coherence tomographic elastography technique for measuring deformation and strain of atherosclerotic tissues". Heart. 90 (5): 556–562. doi:10.1136/hrt.2003.016956. ISSN 1355-6037. PMC 1768234. PMID 15084558.
  21. ^ Rogowska, J; Patel, N; Plummer, S; Brezinski, M E (September 2006). "Quantitative optical coherence tomographic elastography: method for assessing arterial mechanical properties". The British Journal of Radiology. 79 (945): 707–711. doi:10.1259/bjr/22522280. ISSN 0007-1285. PMID 16793852.
  22. ^ Brezinski, Mark E. (November 2014). "Capabilities, limitations, and misconceptions of using OCT to assess vulnerable plaques". Nature Reviews Cardiology. 11 (11): 638. doi:10.1038/nrcardio.2014.62-c1. ISSN 1759-5010. PMID 25245828.
  23. ^ Schenk, John O.; Brezinski, Mark E. (2002-07-23). "Ultrasound induced improvement in optical coherence tomography (OCT) resolution". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 99 (15): 9761–9764. Bibcode:2002PNAS...99.9761S. doi:10.1073/pnas.142155899. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 125006. PMID 12119391.
  24. ^ Huang, Chuanyong; Liu, Bin; Brezinski, Mark E. (2008-04-01). "Ultrasound-enhanced optical coherence tomography: improved penetration and resolution". JOSA A. 25 (4): 938–946. Bibcode:2008JOSAA..25..938H. doi:10.1364/JOSAA.25.000938. ISSN 1520-8532. PMC 3783264. PMID 18382493.
  25. ^ Zheng, Kathy; Liu, Bin; Huang, Chuanyong; Brezinski, Mark E. (2008-11-20). "Experimental confirmation of potential swept source optical coherence tomography performance limitations". Applied Optics. 47 (33): 6151–6158. Bibcode:2008ApOpt..47.6151Z. doi:10.1364/AO.47.006151. ISSN 2155-3165. PMC 2640108. PMID 19023378.
  26. ^ Liu, Bin; Azimi, Ehsan; Brezinski, Mark E. (2011-05-27). "True logarithmic amplification of frequency clock in SS-OCT for calibration". Biomedical Optics Express. 2 (6): 1769–1777. doi:10.1364/boe.2.001769. ISSN 2156-7085. PMC 3114241. PMID 21698036.
  27. ^ Brezinski, Mark E.; Harjai, Kishore J. (December 2014). "Longitudinal necrotic shafts near TCFAs—A potential novel mechanism for plaque rupture to trigger ACS?". International Journal of Cardiology. 177 (3): 738–741. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2014.09.144. PMC 5767922. PMID 25449500.
  28. ^ Brezinski, Mark E. (2019-04-01). "Comparing the Risk Factors of Plaque Rupture and Failed Plaque Healing in Acute Coronary Syndrome". JAMA Cardiology. 4 (4): 329–331. doi:10.1001/jamacardio.2019.0312. ISSN 2380-6583. PMID 30865209. S2CID 76667373.
  29. ^ Brezinski, Mark; Willard, Frank; Rupnick, Maria (2019-12-03). "Inadequate Intimal Angiogenesis as a Source of Coronary Plaque Instability: Implications for Healing". Circulation. 140 (23): 1857–1859. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.119.042192. ISSN 0009-7322. PMC 7017589. PMID 31790293.
  30. ^ Brezinski, Mark E.; Liu, Bin (2008-12-16). "Nonlocal quantum macroscopic superposition in a high-thermal low-purity state". Physical Review A. 78 (6): 063824. Bibcode:2008PhRvA..78f3824B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.78.063824. ISSN 1050-2947. PMC 3818030. PMID 24204102.
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