User:Donald Trung/Western Xia Dynasty coinage (2020 expansion)

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This page serves as "the editing history" of the English Wikipedia article "Western Xia coinage" and is preserved for attribution.

Original draft[edit]

{{Use mdy dates|date = February 2019}} {{Short description|Historical coinage of China}} {{Use American English|date = February 2019}} [[File:Tangut Qianyou Baoqian coin 2.jpg|thumb|right|A tshjwu ꞏwu ljɨ̣ dzjɨj (𘀗𘑨𘏨𘔭) or ''Qian You Bao Qian'' ({{zh|{{linktext|乾|佑|寶|錢}}}}) cash coin written in the [[Tangut script]].]] [[File:1cash XiXia RenZong TianSheng H1897 1ar85 (8723443024).jpg|thumb|1cash XiXia RenZong TianSheng H1897 1ar85 (8723443024)|A Tian Sheng Yuan Bao ({{lang|zh-Hant|{{linktext|天|盛|元|寶}}}}) coin issued under [[Emperor Renzong of Western Xia|Emperor Renzong]].]] The [[Western Xia]] Empire ruled over what are now the northwestern [[provinces of China|Chinese provinces]] of [[Ningxia]], [[Gansu]], eastern [[Qinghai]], northern [[Shaanxi]], northeastern [[Xinjiang]], southwest [[Inner Mongolia]], and southernmost [[Outer Mongolia]] from 1032 until 1227 when they were destroyed by [[Mongol Empire|the Mongols]]. The country was established by the [[Tangut people]];<ref name="Who are the Tanguts?">1984 "Who are the Tanguts? Remarks on Tangut Ethnogenesis and the Ethnonym Tangut." Journal of Asian History 18:1: 78-89.</ref><ref name="Hsi-Hsia">1994 "Hsi-Hsia." The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6. Eds. Denis C. Twitchett and [[Herbert Franke (sinologist)|Herbert Franke]]. [[Cambridge University Press]]</ref> likewise its earliest coins were escribed with [[Tangut script|Tangut characters]], while later they would be written in [[Traditional Chinese characters|Chinese]]. Opposed to Song dynasty coins that often read top-bottom-right-left, Western Xia coins exclusively read clockwise. Despite the fact that coins had been cast for over a century and a half, very little were actually produced and coins from Western Xia are a rarity today.<ref name="Bushell">[[Stephen Wootton Bushell|S.W. Bushell]] "The Hsi Hsia Dynasty of Tangut, Their Money and Peculiar Script" (Journal of the North China Branch of the [[Royal Asiatic Society]] Vol.XXX (1895-1896) pp. 142-160.</ref> Although the Western Xia cast their own coins [[barter]] remained widely used.<ref>Chinaknowledge.de [http://chinaknowledge.de/History/Song/xixia-econ.html Chinese History - Western Xia Empire Economy.] 2000 ff. © Ulrich Theobald. Retrieved: 13 July 2017.</ref> Originally from 1053 until 1068 the inscription of coins were exclusively written in the Tangut script, and between 1068 and 1206 coins were cast with both Tangut and Chinese inscriptions, but after 1206 only Chinese characters were used. Compared to [[Liao dynasty coinage]], coins from Western Xia were cast in superior quality, though only bronze and iron coins produced between 1149 and 1193 were cast in high quantities.<ref name="Gary Ashkenzy">{{cite web|url= http://primaltrek.com/chinesecoins.html#Xi_Xia_Dynasty_1032-1227_|title= Chinese coins – 中國錢幣 (Western Xia Dynasty/Xi Xia Dynasty)|date=16 November 2016|accessdate=17 June 2017|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> After Western Xia was [[Mongol conquest of Western Xia|annexed by the Mongols]], Tangut inscriptions appeared only on a single [[Yuan dynasty coinage|Yuan dynasty coin]].<ref>BabelStone by [[Andrew West (linguist)|Andrew West]] ({{zh|魏安}}) [http://babelstone.blogspot.com/2007/01/zhida-tongbao.html?m=1 Zhida Tongbao]. Wednesday, 10 January 2007. Retrieved: 20 June 2017.</ref> == History == Following the establishment of the Western Xia state, the Tangut people, in an effort to revive their original ethnic and national culture, had rejected both [[Chinese characters]] and [[Chinese fashion]].<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript">{{cite web|url=http://primaltrek.com/blog/2016/10/04/unique-western-xia-coin-written-in-seal-script-unearthed-in-ningxia/|title=Unique Western Xia Coin Written in Seal Script Unearthed in Ningxia.|date=4 October 2016|accessdate=20 June 2017|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref><ref name="ChinaNumismatics2016">“China Numismatics” (2016年1期). [http://mp.weixin.qq.com/s?__biz=MzI3MzI0MzM1MQ==&mid=2247483721&idx=1&sn=41d3af74460f9a03c5de1b0725a3c293&3rd=MzA3MDU4NTYzMw==&scene=6#rd 宁夏首次出土篆书乾祐元宝。] 朱 浒 盛世隆泉 Published: 25 April 2016 by Dr. Zhu Hu (朱浒) of the Art Research Institute of [[East China Normal University]] (华东师范大学艺术研究所) Retrieved: 20 June 2017. (in [[Mandarin Chinese]] using [[Simplified Chinese characters]])</ref> The Tangut people had soon created [[Tangut script|an indigenous writing system]], this writing system was exclusively used on the earlier Western Xia era cash coins.<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/><ref name="ChinaNumismatics2016"/> These early Tangut cash coins had inscriptions like śjɨj ljo ljɨ̣ dzjɨj ({{Tangut|𗼃𗼕𘏨𘔭|2shen3 1lo3 1lyq3 1dzen4}}) and tha nej ljɨ̣ dzjɨj ({{Tangut|𘜶𗵐𘏨𘔭|2tha1 2ne1 1lyq3 1dzen4}}).<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/> The Tangut script inscription on these early Western Xia cash coins always read clockwise (top-right-bottom-left), with all of these coins having inscriptions that translate into [[English language|English]] as "Precious Coin of the" followed by the [[Chinese era name|reign title]].<ref name="BabelStoneTangutCoins">{{cite web|url= https://www.babelstone.co.uk/Blog/2007/01/tangut-coins.html|title= Tangut Coins.|date=29 January 2007|accessdate=20 February 2020|author= [[Andrew West (linguist)|Andrew West]] ({{zh|魏安}}) |publisher= BabelStone Blog|language=en}}</ref> Cash coins with Tangut inscriptions are known to have been produced during six different reign periods, but it's possible that more variants have been produced.<ref name="BabelStoneTangutCoins"/> Cash coins with Tangut inscriptions have been discovered in the modern era such as the Zhengde Baoqian type in the year 1999.<ref name="ChinaCentralTelevisionZhengdeBaoqian">{{cite web|url= http://www.cctv.com/program/jb/20051008/101307.shtml|title= 西夏 崇宗正德年“正德宝钱”.|date=8 October 2005|accessdate=20 February 2020|author= 易凯峰|publisher= [[China Central Television]] (CCTV)|language=zh-cn}}</ref> During the Qianyou period (1139–1193) of the reign of [[Emperor Renzong of Western Xia|Emperor Renzong]] the political and military stability as well as the growing economy in Western Xia had allowed for the country to prosper. Emperor Renzong would hold education in a high esteem and was responsible for the establishment of schools including an Imperial Academy.<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/><ref name="ChinaNumismatics2016"/> Emperor Renzong had further established an [[imperial examination]] system in the style of that of the Chinese Empire.<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/><ref name="ChinaNumismatics2016"/> During the Qianyou era the Tangut government had also gained greater respect for both [[Confucianism|Confucian philosophy]] and the [[culture of the Song dynasty]].<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/><ref name="ChinaNumismatics2016"/> Much art from the Western Xia Empire, including its coinage was largely based on that from China.<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeWesternXiaArt">{{cite web|url= http://chinaknowledge.de/History/Song/xixia-arts.html|title= Chinese History - Western Xia Empire Arts.|date=2000|accessdate=21 February 2020|work= By Ulrich Theobald ([[Chinaknowledge]]).|language=en}}</ref> This era also saw the production of Song dynasty-style cash coins, these Song dynasty-style cash coins also followed the Song tradition of casting “Matched Coins” (對錢, ''duì qián'', 對品, ''duì pǐn'', 和合錢, ''hé hé qián''), where two or more different [[Chinese calligraphy]] styles were used on cash coins that had the same Chinese era title (or reign period).<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/><ref name="ChinaNumismatics2016"/> These Chinese calligraphic styles included [[clerical script]], [[regular script]], [[running script]], [[grass script]], and rarely [[seal script]].<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/><ref name="ChinaNumismatics2016"/> == List of coins produced by the Western Xia == {{See also|List of Chinese cash coins by inscription}} The [[Cash (Chinese coin)|cash coins]] produced under the Western Xia were cast in either Tangut or Chinese.<ref>Charms.ru [http://www.charm.ru/coins/vn/ch-vn.shtml Coincidences of Vietnam and China cash coins legends]. Francis Ng, [[People’s Republic of China]], Thuan D. Luc, [[United States]], and Vladimir A. Belyaev, [[Russia]] March–June, 1999 Retrieved: 17 June 2017.</ref> Coins with Tangut inscriptions:<ref>BabelStone ([[Andrew West (linguist)|Andrew West]]) [http://babelstone.blogspot.com/2007/01/tangut-coins.html Tangut Coins]. Monday, 29 January 2007. Retrieved: 18 June 2017.</ref><ref>in [[Li Fanwen]] ({{zh|李範文}}), Xia-Han Zidian ({{zh|夏漢字典}}) [A Tangut-Chinese Dictionary] ([[Beijing]]: Zhongguo Shehui Kexue Chubanshe, 1997).</ref>{{efn|The transliterations are those from [[Tangutology|Tangutologist]] [[Li Fanwen]], as opposed to Hartill's usage "Lee Ndzen" and similar phonetics which are common in the numismatics community.}} {| class="wikitable" |- ! Inscription<br>([[Tangut language|Tangut]]) !! Inscription<br>([[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]) !! [[Traditional Chinese]] !! [[Simplified Chinese]] !! Years of casting !! [[Chinese emperors family tree (middle)#Western Xia and Dingnan Jiedushi|Emperor]] !! Image |- | śjɨj ljo ljɨ̣ dzjɨj ({{Tangut|𗼃𗼕𘏨𘔭|2shen3 1lo3 1lyq3 1dzen4}}) || Fu Sheng Bao Qian || 福聖寶錢 || 福圣宝钱 || 1053–1056 || [[Emperor Yizong of Western Xia|Yizong]] || [[File:Tangut Fusheng Baoqian coin.jpg|75px]] |- | tha nej ljɨ̣ dzjɨj ({{Tangut|𘜶𗵐𘏨𘔭|2tha1 2ne1 1lyq3 1dzen4}}) || Da An Bao Qian || 大安寶錢 || 大安宝钱 || 1074–1084 || [[Emperor Huizong of Western Xia|Huizong]] || [[File:Tangut Da'an Baoqian coin.jpg|75px]] |- | tśhja bio̲ ljɨ̣ dzjɨj ({{Tangut|𗣼𘝯𘏨𘔭|2chha3 1bo'2 1lyq3 1dzen4}}) || Zhen Guan Bao Qian || 貞觀寶錢 || 贞观宝钱 || 1101–1113 || [[Emperor Chongzong of Western Xia|Chongzong]] || |- | tśhja mji̲ ljɨ̣ dzjɨj ({{Tangut|𗣼𘇚𘏨𘔭|2chha3 2mi'4 1lyq3 1dzen4}}) || Zheng De Bao Qian ||正德寶錢 || 正德宝钱 || 1127–1134 || Chongzong || |- | tshjwu ꞏwu ljɨ̣ dzjɨj ({{Tangut|𘀗𘑨𘏨𘔭|1tshwu4 2wuq1 1lyq3 1dzen4}}) || Qian You Bao Qian || 乾佑寶錢|| 乾佑宝钱 || 1170–1193 || [[Emperor Renzong of Western Xia|Renzong]] || [[File:Tangut Qianyou Baoqian coin 2.jpg|75px]] |- | ŋwər ljwu ljɨ̣ dzjɨj ({{Tangut|𘓺𘅝𘏨𘔭|1ngwyr1 2lwu4 1lyq3 1dzen4}}) || Tian Qing Bao Qian || 天慶寶錢 || 天庆宝钱 || 1194–1206 || [[Emperor Huanzong of Western Xia|Huanzong]] || [[File:Tangut Tianqing Baoqian coin.jpg|75px]] |} Coins with Chinese inscriptions: {| class="wikitable" |- ! Inscription !! [[Traditional Chinese]] !! [[Simplified Chinese]] !! [[Chinese script styles|Script]] !! Years of casting !! [[Chinese emperors family tree (middle)#Western Xia and Dingnan Jiedushi|Emperor]] !! Image |- | Da An Tong Bao || 大安通寶 || 大安通宝 || [[Clerical script]] || 1074–1084 || [[Emperor Huizong of Western Xia|Huizong]] || |- | Yuan De Tong Bao || 元德通寶 || 元德通宝 || Clerical script || 1119–1126 || [[Emperor Chongzong of Western Xia|Chongzong]] || |- | Da De Tong Bao || 大德通寶 || 大德通宝 || [[Regular script]] || 1135–1139 || Chongzong || |- | Tian Sheng Yuan Bao || 天盛元寶 || 天盛元宝 || Regular script || 1149–1169 || [[Emperor Renzong of Western Xia|Renzong]] || [[File:1cash XiXia RenZong TianSheng H1897 1ar85 (8723443024).jpg|75px]] |- | Qian You Yuan Bao || 乾佑元寶 || 乾佑元宝 || Regular script, [[Semi-cursive script]], [[Seal script]]<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/><ref name="ChinaNumismatics2016"/> || 1170–1193 || Renzong || [[File:S540 (7901023548).jpg|75px]] |- | Tian Qing Yuan Bao || 天慶元寶 || 天庆元宝 || Regular script || 1194–1206 || [[Emperor Huanzong of Western Xia|Huanzong]] || [[File:Tian Qing Yuan Bao (天慶元寶) - Scott Semans.jpg|75px]] |- | Huang Jian Yuan Bao || 皇建元寶 || 皇建元宝 || Regular script || 1210–1211 || [[Emperor Xiangzong of Western Xia|Xiangzong]] || |- | Guang Ding Yuan Bao || 光定元寶 || 光定元宝 || Semi-cursive script, Seal script<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/><ref name="ChinaNumismatics2016"/> || 1211–1223 || [[Emperor Shenzong of Western Xia|Shenzong]] || |} == Usage of seal script on Western Xia cash coins == Many Chinese and other Oriental coin catalogues through the centuries had documented the cash coins that were cast by the Western Xia Empire to be in regular script or running scripts but not in seal script.<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/> This changed in September of the year 1984 with the discovery of a seal script Guangding Yuanbao cash coin and again in 2012 with the discovery of a seal script Qianyou Yuanbao cash coin.<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/> While a multitude of seal script Guangding Yuanbao cash coins have been discovered, only a single Qianyou Yuanbao cash coin has been known to exist.<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/> Today these newly discovered variants have been added to newer Chinese coin catalogues as variants of the "matched cash coins" of the Western Xia Empire.<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/> In the modern era the discovery of a new Chinese coin variety is a rare occurrence to happen, so the discovery of the seal script Qianyou Yuanbao has caused a great amount of excitement among Chinese cash coinage collectors.<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/> === Guangding Yuanbao === In early September of the year 1984 a cache of old cash coins was unearthed in the [[Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region]], among these cash coins was a Guangding Yuanbao (光定元寶) with an inscription that was written in [[seal script]].<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/><ref name="ChinaNumismatics2016"/> These cash coins were unearthed due to Helanshan [[flash flood]]s which occurred near [[Yinchuan]], which was historically known as [[Xingqing Prefecture|Xingqing]] and was the capital city of the Western Xia Empire.<ref name="BeijingTsinghuaSealScriptXiXiaCashCoins">{{cite web|url= http://www.cnki.com.cn/Article/CJFDTotal-ZGQB198502013.htm|title= 银川首次出土篆书光定元宝平钱.|date=2016|accessdate=20 February 2020|author= 牛达生|publisher= Beijing [[Tsinghua University]] (北京清华大学)|language=zh-cn}}</ref><ref name="ChinaNumismatics2016"/> Among the cash coins unearthed during this event were [[Han dynasty|Han]], [[Tang dynasty|Tang]], [[Song dynasty|Song]], [[Liao dynasty|Khitan Liao]], [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jurchen Jin]], and many other types of cash coins.<ref name="BeijingTsinghuaSealScriptXiXiaCashCoins"/> The rarest earlier documented coins found after these flash floods were Liao dynasty coins and gold coins, but at the time the seal script Guangding Yuanbao was never seen before and thought to be unique.<ref name="BeijingTsinghuaSealScriptXiXiaCashCoins"/> This first seal script Guangding Yuanbao cash coin has a diameter of 25.3 millimeters, a thickness of 1.4 millimeters, and a weight of 4.3 grams.<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/> In the year 2002 a second specimen was dug up in the province of [[Shaanxi]], this was followed by the discovery of a third specimen found in [[Inner Mongolia]].<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/><ref name="ChinaNumismatics2016"/> Later excavations in the [[Tongxin County]], Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region had brought this number up to more than ten.<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/><ref name="ChinaNumismatics2016"/> === Qianyou Yuanbao === For a long it was believed that the Guangding Yuanbao cash coins produced towards the very end of the Western Xia period were the only cash coins with seal script inscriptions produced by the empire.<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/><ref name="ChinaNumismatics2016"/> However, in the 2012, a Chinese farmer had uncovered a cache of Western Xia era cash coins in Tongxin County, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region and among these cash coins was a unique Qianyou Yuanbao (乾佑元寶) with a seal script inscription.<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/><ref name="ChinaNumismatics2016"/> This cash coin has a diameter of 25.4 millimeters, a thickness of 1.5 millimeters and has a weight of 3.3 grams, its inscription is read clockwise.<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/><ref name="ChinaNumismatics2016"/> Dr. [[Zhu Hu]] (朱浒) of the Art Research Institute of [[East China Normal University]] published in “Volume One of China Numismatics” ({{zh|t= 中國錢幣 2016年1期|s= 中国钱币2016年1期| hp= zhōng guó qián bì èr qiān liù shí liù nián yì qī| l= | links=yes}}) an assessment of this cash coin.<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/><ref name="ChinaNumismatics2016"/> According to Dr. Zhu Hu this cash coin is inspired by the seal script "matched cash coins" from the Northern Song dynasty.<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/><ref name="ChinaNumismatics2016"/> Dr. Zhu Hu notes that the seal script character "You" (祐) is written in the same method as that of the Jingyou Yuanbao (景祐元寶), Jiayou Yuanbao (嘉祐元寶), and the Yuanyou Tongbao (元祐通寶) cash issued by the Song dynasty in the course of a century from the tenth century until the twelfth century.<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/><ref name="ChinaNumismatics2016"/> While the seal script characters "Yuan" (元) and "Bao" (寶) similar to the "Yuan" and "Bao" characters found on the Xuanhe Yuanbao (宣和元寶), and its "Bao" (寶) character looks similar to that of the seal script version of the Zhenghe Tongbao (政和通寶).<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/><ref name="ChinaNumismatics2016"/> The discovery of this unique seal script Qianyou Yuanbao cash coin also means that this inscription is the only Western Xia Empire cash coin that is known to exist in three different Chinese calligraphic varieties, in the form of regular script, running script, and seal script.<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/><ref name="ChinaNumismatics2016"/> According to [[Gary Ashkenazy]] from the website ''Primaltrek'', he claims that the fact that this unique seal script Qianyou Yuanbao cash coin is very well-made, in his opinion lends credence to the speculation that this coin might have been cast as a trial piece, or [[pattern coin]], and that only very few cash coins with this inscription and calligraphic style might have been actually cast for general circulation.<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/> === Differences in style between the seal script Guangding Yuanbao and Qianyou Yuanbao cash coins === The seal script "Yuan" (元) character of the Guangding Yuanbao cash coins tends to have more "twists and turns" than the more "dignified" version of the "Yuan" on the seal script version of the Qianyou Yuanbao,<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/> furthermore, the "Yuan" character inscribed on the bottom of the Guangding Yuanbao touches the rim of the coin, which the "Yuan" on the Qianyou Yuanbao doesn't touch the rim of the coin.<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/> Another difference between these two cash coins is the fact that the "crown" of the seal script "Bao" (宝) character of the Guangding Yuanbao has a more "square" shape compared to the more "round" shape of the "Bao" found on the seal script version of the Qianyou Yuanbao.<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/> All of these differentiating characteristics are also found on the seal script "matched cash coins" produced by the Song dynasty.<ref name="PrimaltrekWesternXiaSealScript"/><ref name="ChinaNumismatics2016"/> == See also == {{Portal|Money}} * [[History of Chinese currency]] * [[Zhou dynasty coinage]] * [[Ancient Chinese coinage]] * [[Liao dynasty coinage]] * [[Southern Song dynasty coinage]] * [[Jin dynasty coinage (1115–1234)]] * [[Yuan dynasty coinage]] * [[Ming dynasty coinage]] * [[Qing dynasty coinage]] == Notes == {{notelist}} == References == {{reflist}} == Sources == * 1994. “西夏的衡制與幣制 Xixia de hengzhi yu bizhi (The weight and coin systems of the West Xia)” 《中國錢幣》 Zhongguo qianbi / China Numanistics 1994.1: 3-8,17, 81 (in [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]) * 2002. “西夏货币制度概述 (The Outline of monetary system of West Xia dynasty).” 《中國錢幣》 Zhongguo qianbi / China Numanistics 2002.3:43-46 (in [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]) * Hartill, David (September 22, 2005). ''Cast Chinese Coins.'' [[Trafford]], [[United Kingdom]]: Trafford Publishing. {{ISBN|978-1412054669}}. * Niú Dáshēng (牛达生) ''Research into Western Xia Coins.'' (2013) {{commons+cat|Category:Coins of the Western Xia}} {{n-start}} {{n-before|currency=[[Ancient Chinese coinage]]|reason=Independence.}} {{n-currency|location=[[History of China|China]] ([[Gansu]])|start=1038|end=1227}} {{n-after|currency=[[Yuan dynasty coinage]]|reason=[[Mongol conquest of Western Xia|Mongol conquest]]}} {{n-end}} {{Chinese currency and coinage}} {{Western Xia topics}} [[:Category:Western Xia|Coinage]] [[:Category:Tangut history]] [[:Category:Coins of China]] [[:Category:Cash coins]] [[:Category:Currencies of China]] [[:Category:Medieval currencies]] [[:Category:Chinese numismatics]]

Standard reference templates[edit]

March 2020.
  • <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= March 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>
  • <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= March 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>
February 2020.
  • <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= February 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>
  • <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= February 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>
January 2020.
  • <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= January 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>
  • <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= January 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>
December 2019.
  • <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2019|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>
  • <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= December 2019|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>

To use[edit]

  • <ref name="HoreshQing">{{cite web|url= https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-981-10-0622-7_54-1|title= The Monetary System of China under the Qing Dynasty.|date=28 September 2018|accessdate=29 July 2019|author= [[Niv Horesh]]|publisher= [[Springer Nature|Springer Link]]|language=en}}</ref>
    • <ref name="HoreshQing"/>
  • <ref name="PrimalQing">{{cite web|url= http://primaltrek.com/chinesecoins.html#qing_dynasty_coins|title= Chinese coins – 中國錢幣 - Qing (Ch'ing) Dynasty (1644-1911)|date=16 November 2016|accessdate=30 June 2017|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>
    • <ref name="PrimalQing"/>
  • <ref name="PrimaltrekKingOfQingDynastyCoins">{{cite web|url= http://primaltrek.com/blog/2013/01/08/the-king-of-qing-dynasty-coins/|title=The King of Qing Dynasty Coins.|date=8 January 2013|accessdate=8 January 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>
    • <ref name="PrimaltrekKingOfQingDynastyCoins"/>
  • <ref name="CambridgeInflation">{{cite web|url= https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bulletin-of-the-school-of-oriental-and-african-studies/article/hsienfeng-inflation/54A8F1ADDC871CC18F4DCFA828730DEB|title= The Hsien-Fêng Inflation (Published online by Cambridge University Press: 24 December 2009).|date=October 1958|accessdate=28 July 2019|author= Jerome Ch'ên|publisher= [[SOAS University of London]]|language=en}}</ref>
    • <ref name="CambridgeInflation"/>
  • <ref name="Brill2015">[https://www.academia.edu/28400259/_Silver_Copper_Rice_and_Debt_Monetary_Policy_and_Office_Selling_in_China_during_the_Taiping_Rebellion_in_Money_in_Asia_1200_1900_Small_Currencies_in_Social_and_Political_Contexts_ed._by_Jane_Kate_Leonard_and_Ulrich_Theobald_Leiden_Brill_2015_343-395 “Silver, Copper, Rice, and Debt: Monetary Policy and Office Selling in China during the Taiping Rebellion,” in Money in Asia (1200–1900): Small Currencies in Social and Political Contexts, ed.] by Jane Kate Leonard and Ulrich Theobald, [[Leiden]]: Brill, 2015, 343-395.</ref>
    • <ref name="Brill2015"/>
  • <ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsDebinMa">{{cite web|url= http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/41940/1/WP159.pdf|title= Money and Monetary System in China in the 19th-20th Century: An Overview. (Working Papers No. 159/12)|date=January 2012|accessdate=26 January 2020|author= Debin Ma|publisher= Department of Economic History, [[London School of Economics]]|language=en}}</ref>
    • <ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsDebinMa"/>
  • <ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsXunYan">{{cite web|url= http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/3307/1/Yan_In_Search_of_Power.pdf|title= In Search of Power and Credibility - Essays on Chinese Monetary History (1851-1845).|date=March 2015|accessdate=8 February 2020|author= Xun Yan|publisher= Department of Economic History, [[London School of Economics|London School of Economics and Political Science]]||language=en}}</ref>
    • <ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsXunYan"/>

More sources[edit]

  • <ref name="BeijingTsinghuaSealScriptXiXiaCashCoins">{{cite web|url= http://www.cnki.com.cn/Article/CJFDTotal-ZGQB198502013.htm|title= 银川首次出土篆书光定元宝平钱.|date=2016|accessdate=20 February 2020|author= 牛达生|publisher= Beijing [[Tsinghua University]] (北京清华大学)|language=zh-cn}}</ref>
    • <ref name="BeijingTsinghuaSealScriptXiXiaCashCoins"/>
  • <ref name="BabelStoneTangutCoins">{{cite web|url= https://www.babelstone.co.uk/Blog/2007/01/tangut-coins.html|title= Tangut Coins.|date=29 January 2007|accessdate=20 February 2020|author= [[Andrew West (linguist)|Andrew West]] ({{zh|魏安}}) |publisher= BabelStone Blog|language=en}}</ref>
  • <ref name="ChinaCentralTelevisionZhengdeBaoqian">{{cite web|url= http://www.cctv.com/program/jb/20051008/101307.shtml|title= 西夏 崇宗正德年“正德宝钱”.|date=8 October 2005|accessdate=20 February 2020|author= 易凯峰|publisher= [[China Central Television]] (CCTV)|language=zh-cn}}</ref>
  • <ref name="ChinaKnowledgeWesternXiaArt">{{cite web|url= http://chinaknowledge.de/History/Song/xixia-arts.html|title= Chinese History - Western Xia Empire Arts.|date=2000|accessdate=21 February 2020|work= By Ulrich Theobald ([[Chinaknowledge]]).|language=en}}</ref>
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