User:JakobSteenberg/sandbox

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'''Aalborg Portland A/S''' is a [[Denmark|danish]] [[cement]] and [[concrete]] producer. Aalborg Portland A/S is a [[aktieselskab]] (a [[stock]]-based corporation)The company, original named ''Aalborg Portland-Cement Factory'' was founded on 16 oktober 1889. The company is part of the [[Cementir Group]], an international supplier of cement and concrete.














History of dissection[edit]

The history of dissection dates back more than 2.000 years. Although it impossible to say when the first dissections of animals or humans took place, Alcmaeon of Croton is considered by many an early pioneer and advocate of anatomical dissection.[1] His celebrated discoveries in the field of dissection in animals were noted in antiquity, but whether his knowledge in this branch of science was derived from the dissection of animals or of human bodies is still a disputed question.[2] Some modern scholars doubt that Calcidius performed any dissection entirely.[3]

Human dissections have been carried out by Greek physicians in the early part of the third century BC.[4] Throughout history, the dissection of human cadavers for medical education has experienced various cycles of legalization and proscription in different countries.

Classical antiquity[edit]

Human dissections were carried out by the Greek physicians Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Chios in the early part of the third century BC.[5] Before and after this time investigators appeared to largely limit themselves to animals.[6] Roman law forbade dissection and autopsy of the human body,[7] so physicians such as Galen were unable to work on cadavers. Galen for example dissected the Barbary Macaque and other primates, assuming their anatomy was basically the same as that of humans.[8][9][10]

Islamic world[edit]

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the onset of the Early Middle Ages, the Greek tradition of medicine went into decline in Western Europe, although it continued uninterrupted in the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire. After 750 CE, the Muslim world had the works of Hippocrates, Galen and Sushruta translated into Arabic, and Islamic physicians engaged in some significant medical research. It is not known whether or not human dissections were also conducted by Arabic physicians. Islamic scholars such as Al-Ghazali expressed support for its practice.[11] It is possible that Islamic physicians may have performed dissections, including Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) (1091–1161) in Al-Andalus,[12][unreliable source?] Saladin's physician Ibn Jumay during the 12th century, Abd el-Latif in Egypt c. 1200,[13] and Ibn al-Nafis in Syria and Egypt in the 13th century.[11][14][15] However, doubt remains because al-Nafis, a specialist in Islamic jurisprudence, construed dissection as un-Islamic and avoided it, citing "shari'a [the religious law] and his own 'compassion' for the human body".[16]

Middle Ages in Europe[edit]

Unlike pagan Rome, Christian Europe did not exercise a universal prohibition of the dissection and autopsy of the human body and such examinations were carried out regularly from at least the 13th century.[6][17][18] It has even been suggested that Christian theology contributed significantly to the revival of human dissection and autopsy by providing a new socio-religious and cultural context in which the human cadaver was no longer seen as sacrosanct.[6]

Illustration of a dissection (De Re Anatomica, 1559).

Throughout history, the dissection of human cadavers for medical education has experienced various cycles of legalization and proscription in different countries. Anatomization has even been ordered as a form of punishment (as, for example, in 1805 at Massachusetts to James Halligan and Dominic Daley after their public hanging).[citation needed] An edict of the 1163 Council of Tours, and an early 14th century decree of Pope Boniface VIII have mistakenly been identified as prohibiting dissection and autopsy,[19][20] but no universal prohibition of dissection or autopsy was exercised during the Middle Ages. Rather, the era witnessed the revival of an interest in medical studies, and a renewal in human dissection and autopsy.[21] Some European countries began legalizing the dissection of executed criminals for educational purposes in the late 13th and early 14th centuries, and Mondino de Liuzzi carried out the first recorded public dissection around 1315. Vesalius in the 16th century carried out numerous dissections in the process of performing some of the most extensive anatomical investigations up to his time, but was attacked frequently by other physicians for his disagreement with Galen's studies of human anatomy. For many years it was assumed that Vesalius's pilgrimage to Palestine was an escape from pressures of the Inquisition brought as a result of his work with cadavers. Today this is generally considered to be without foundation and is dismissed by modern biographers.[22]

The Catholic church is known to have ordered an autopsy on conjoined twins Joana and Melchiora Ballestero in Hispanola in 1533 to determine whether they shared a soul. They found that there were two distinct hearts, and hence two souls, based on the ancient Greek philosopher Empedocles, who believed the soul resided in the heart.[23]

Early Modern Europe[edit]

The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp painted by Rembrandt in 1632

In England, dissection remained entirely prohibited until the 16th century, when a series of royal edicts gave specific groups of physicians and surgeons some limited rights to dissect cadavers. The permission was quite limited: by the mid-18th century, the Royal College of Physicians and Company of Barber-Surgeons were the only two groups permitted to carry out dissections, and had an annual quota of ten cadavers between them. As a result of pressure from anatomists, especially in the rapidly growing medical schools, the Murder Act 1752 allowed the bodies of executed murderers to be dissected for anatomical research and education. By the 19th century this supply of cadavers proved insufficient, however, due to both the continuing expansion of medical schools, and the creation of a number of private medical schools, which lacked legal access to cadavers. A thriving black market arose in cadavers and body parts, leading to the creation of an entire profession of body-snatcher, and even more extremely, the infamous Burke and Hare murders in 1828, when 16 people were murdered in order to sell their cadavers to anatomists. The resulting public outcry largely led to the passage of the Anatomy Act 1832, which greatly increased the legal supply of cadavers for dissection. (See also: History of anatomy in the 19th century.)[24]


In 1664, Thomas Willis, a physician and professor at Oxford University, coined the term neurology when he published his text Cerebri anatome which is considered the foundation of neuroanatomy.[25] The subsequent three hundred and fifty some years has produced a great deal of documentation and study of the neural systems.

Modern ages[edit]

A vivisection of a Common Sand Frog. The frog is chloroformed and then dissected. This dissection was carried out in a Biology lab, as part of the A-levels biology practicals in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

Dissections of animals have also been used for educational purposes, often in general science education where the use of human cadavers would not be justified. In the United States, dissection of frogs became common in college biology classes from the 1920s, and gradually began to be introduced at earlier stages of education. By 1988 an estimated 75 to 80 percent of American high school biology students were participating in a frog dissection, with a trend towards introduction in elementary schools. The dissected frogs are most commonly from the Rana genus. Other popular animals for high-school dissection at the time of that survey were, among vertebrates, fetal pigs, perch, and cats; and among invertebrates, earthworms, grasshoppers, crayfish, and starfish.[26]

Controversy over dissection in U.S. high schools became prominent in 1987, when a California student, Jenifer Graham, sued to require her school to let her complete an alternate project. The court ruled that mandatory dissections were permissible, but that Graham could ask to dissect a frog that had died of natural causes rather than one that was killed for the purposes of dissection; the practical impossibility of procuring a frog that had died of natural causes in effect let Graham opt out of the required dissection. The suit also gave considerable publicity to anti-dissection advocates. Graham appeared in a 1987 Apple Computer commercial for the virtual-dissection software Operation Frog.[27][28] The state of California passed a Student's Rights Bill in 1988 requiring that objecting students be allowed to complete alternative projects.[29] The trend towards students opting out of dissection increased through the 1990s.[30]

21st century[edit]

Veterinary students in the United States dissect cadavers in a laboratory as part of an anatomy class on September 22, 2005.

By the 21st century, the availability of interactive computer programs and changing public sentiment led to renewed debate on the use of cadavers in medical education. The Peninsula College of Medicine and Dentistry in the UK, founded in 2000, became the first modern medical school to carry out its anatomy education without dissection, though most medical schools continue to see experience with actual cadavers as preferable to entirely computer-based education.[31]

http://www.ted.com/talks/jack_choi_on_the_virtual_dissection_table.html

Virtual dissection tables (http://med.stanford.edu/ism/2011/may/dissection-0509.html) Which medical schools still use dissection? Biology classes? Anatomy murder

Dissection exhibition[edit]

From dissection of humans being a public event it became withdrawn to medical schools after the Anatomy Act 1832 in England. In recent times human dissection have however once again become some of a public spectate with dissection exhibitions around the world.

Body Worlds, a traveling exhibition of preserved human bodies and body parts that are prepared using a technique called plastination, was first presented in Tokyo in 1995. Body Worlds exhibitions have since been hosted by more than 50 museums and venues in North America, Europe and Asia.

In 2002 von Hagens performed the first public autopsy in the UK in 170 years, to a sell-out audience of 500 people in a London theatre.[32] Prior to performing the autopsy, von Hagens had received a letter from Her Majesty's Inspector of Anatomy, the British government official responsible for regulating the educational use of cadavers. The letter warned von Hagens that performing a public autopsy would be a criminal act under section 11 of the Anatomy Act 1984. The show was attended by officers from the Metropolitan Police, but they did not intervene and the autopsy was performed in full. The autopsy was shown in November 2002 on the UK's Channel 4 television channel; it resulted in over 130 complaints, an OFCOM record, but the Independent Television Commission ruled that the programme had not been sensationalist and had not broken broadcasting rules.[33] A planned public dissection in Munich was cancelled.[citation needed]

Although von Hagens used the word autopsy of the procedure, it has been speculated that this was done in order to avoid legal repercussions since von Hagen is not license to do a dissection in England.[34]

In 2005 Channel 4 screened four programmes entitled Anatomy for Beginners, featuring von Hagens and pathology professor John Lee dissecting a number of cadavers and discussing the structure and function of many of the body's parts.[35]


Gunther von Hagens he first exhibition of whole bodies was displayed in Japan in 1995. Over the next two years, von Hagens developed the Body Worlds exhibition, showing whole bodies plastinated in lifelike poses and dissected to show various structures and systems of human anatomy, which has since met with public interest and controversy in more than 50 cities around the world.


Human Dissections Were Often Public Events

At specially-built anatomy theaters on designated days during the Renaissance, hundreds of interested (and often rowdy) laypeople would join government officials, university professors and student

Read more: http://www.toptenz.net/top-10-astonishing-things-you-didnt-know-about-human-dissection.php#ixzz2M6hHjlYW


From being a public spectate in XXX

Bodies: The Exhibition (2005)

Body Worlds (which opened in 1995).

See also[edit]

Anatomical theatre Prosector‎

Additional images[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=aa05
  2. ^ Dict. of Ant., p. 756, a
  3. ^ Owen, Gwilym Ellis Lane (1996). "Alcmaeon (2)". In Hornblower, Simon (ed.). Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  4. ^ The discovery of the body: human dissection and it...[Yale J Biol Med. 1992 May-Jun] - PubMed Result
  5. ^ The discovery of the body: human dissection and it...[Yale J Biol Med. 1992 May-Jun] - PubMed Result
  6. ^ a b c P Prioreschi, Determinants of the revival of dissection of the human body in the Middle Ages', Medical Hypotheses (2001) 56(2), 229–234)
  7. ^ "Tragically, the prohibition of human dissection by Rome in 150 BC arrested this progress and few of their findings survived." Arthur Aufderheide, The Scientific Study of Mummies (2003), p. 5
  8. ^ Vivian Nutton, 'The Unknown Galen', (2002), p. 89
  9. ^ Heinrich Von Staden, Herophilus (1989), p. 140
  10. ^ Philip Lutgendorf, Hanuman's Tale: The Messages of a Divine Monkey (2007), p. 348
  11. ^ a b Savage-Smith, Emilie (1995). "Attitudes toward dissection in medieval Islam". Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. 50 (1): 67–110. doi:10.1093/jhmas/50.1.67. PMID 7876530.
  12. ^ Islamic medicine, Hutchinson Encyclopedia.
  13. ^ Emilie Savage-Smith (1996), "Medicine", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, Vol. 3, p. 903-962 [951-952]. Routledge, London and New York.
  14. ^ Al-Dabbagh, S. A. (1978). "Ibn Al-Nafis and the pulmonary circulation". The Lancet. 1 (8074): 1148. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(78)90318-5. PMID 77431.
  15. ^ Reflections, Chairman's (2004). "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting". Heart Views. 5 (2): 74–85 [80]. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |author-separator= ignored (help)
  16. ^ Huff, Toby (2011). Intellectual Curiousity and the Scientific Revolution: A Global Perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 179. ISBN 978-1-107-00082-7.
  17. ^ "In the 13th century, the realisation that human anatomy could only be taught by dissection of the human body resulted in its legalisation in several European countries between 1283 and 1365." Philip Cheung, Public Trust in Medical Research? (2007), p. 36.
  18. ^ "Indeed, very early in the thirteenth century, a religious official, namely, Pope Innocent III (1198-1216), ordered the postmortem autopsy of a person whose death was suspicious." Toby Huff, The Rise Of Modern Science (2003), p. 195
  19. ^ 'While during this period the Church did not forbid human dissections in general, certain edicts were directed at specific practices. These included the Ecclesia Abhorret a Sanguine in 1163 by the Council of Tours and Pope Boniface VIII's command to terminate the practice of dismemberment of slain crusaders' bodies and boiling the parts to enable defleshing for return of their bones. Such proclamations were commonly misunderstood as a ban on all dissection of either living persons or cadavers (Rogers & Waldron, 1986), and progress in anatomical knowledge by human dissection did not thrive in that intellectual climate', Arthur Aufderheide, The Scientific Study of Mummies (2003), p. 5
  20. ^ 'It must be noted, however, that the pope did not forbid anatomical dissections but only the dissections performed with the purpose of preserving the bodies for distant burial', P. Prioreschi, Determinants of the revival of dissection of the human body in the Middle Ages', Medical Hypotheses (2001) 56(2), 229–234)
  21. ^ 'Current scholarship reveals that Europeans had considerable knowledge of human anatomy, not just that based on Galen and his animal dissections. For the Europeans had performed significant numbers of human dissections, especially postmortem autopsies during this era', 'Many of the autopsies were conducted to determine whether or not the deceased had died of natural causes (disease) or whether there had been foul play, poisoning, or physical assault. Indeed, very early in the thirteenth century, a religious official, namely, Pope Innocent III (1198-1216), ordered the postmortem autopsy of a person whose death was suspicious', Toby Huff, The Rise Of Modern Science (2003), p. 195
  22. ^ See C. D. O'Malley Andreas Vesalius' Pilgrimage, Isis 45:2, 1954
  23. ^ Freedman, David H. (September 2012). "20 Things you didn't know about autopsies". Discovery. 9: 72. {{cite journal}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  24. ^ Cheung, pp. 37–44
  25. ^ Neher, A., "Christopher Wren, Thomas Willis and the Depiction of the Brain and Nerves". Journal of Medical Humanities, 2009, 30(3), 191-200.
  26. ^ F. Barbara Orlans, Tom L. Beauchamp, Rebecca Dresser, David B. Morton, and John P. Gluck (1998). The Human Use of Animals. Oxford University Press. p. 213. ISBN 0-19-511908-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  27. ^ Howard Rosenberg: Apple Computer's 'Frog' Ad Is Taken Off the Air. LA Times, November 10, 1987.
  28. ^ F. Barbara Orlans, Tom L. Beauchamp, Rebecca Dresser, David B. Morton, and John P. Gluck (1998). The Human Use of Animals. Oxford University Press. p. 210. ISBN 0-19-511908-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  29. ^ Orlans et al., pp. 209–211
  30. ^ Johnson, Dirk (May 29, 1997). "Frogs' Best Friends: Students Who Won't Dissect Them". New York Times. Retrieved May 1, 2010.
  31. ^ Cheung, pp. 33, 35
  32. ^ "Controversial autopsy goes ahead". BBC News. 20 November 2002. Retrieved 8 May 2009.
  33. ^ Deans, Jason (27 January 2003). "ITC defends C4's live autopsy". The Guardian. Retrieved 8 May 2009.
  34. ^ MacDonald, Helen Patricia (January 2006). Human Remains: Dissection and Its Histories. Yale University Press. ISBN 0300116993.
  35. ^ "Anatomy for Beginners". Channel 4. 2009. Retrieved 8 May 2009.

External links[edit]

http://www.ted.com/talks/jack_choi_on_the_virtual_dissection_table.html

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JakobSteenberg/sandbox

Tracheal agenesis is a rare birth defect in which the trachea fails to develop. The defect is normally fatal.

In tracheal agenesis the communication between the larynx and the alveoli of the lungs is lacking.

Causes[edit]

No risk factor for the occurrence of this malformation has ever been suggested.

Diagnosis[edit]

Tracheal agenesis should be suspected in any neonate with a history of hydramnios, respiratory distress, cyanosis and no audible cry, and in those in whom tracheal intubation proves impossible.

The diagnosis of TA is confirmed by laryngoscopy and a helical computerized tomography (CT) scan of the airway. The diagnosis has been established antemortem in only a few cases.

The prevalence of tracheal agenesis is approximately 1 in 50.000.(http://www.orpha.net/consor/cgi-bin/OC_Exp.php?Lng=EN&Expert=3346</) There is a male predominance and an association with premature birth and polyhydramnios

Associated conditions[edit]

Associated congenital malformations are present in 90% of cases, most frequently affecting the cardiovascular or gastro-intestinal systems and the genito-urinary tract

Treatment[edit]

See also[edit]

External links[edit]

References[edit]






We would like to assess all Spaceflight-related articles for quality as well as importance. As of June 2013:

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