User:Mgslee/sandbox

A sandbox is an space on my Wikipedia account where I can practice formatting articles.

Being bold is important on wikipedia.

My contributions

Area: Hanoi

1. Added the first and last paragraphs of to the Modern Hanoi sub-section under the History section, adding 1 new source.
2. Added to the 5th paragraph of the Economy section, 1 new source.
3. Added the last paragraph of the Economy section, 2 new sources.
4. Started a new Development section with Infrastructural development and Civil society development sub-sections, 2 new sources.
5. Added 3 new sentences to the end of the Education section.
6. Started the Reform sub-section, 1 new source.

Sector: Community development

1. Added a sentence to the CED definition in the Different approaches section, 1 new source.
2. Added the worker cooperative definition to the Different approaches section, 1 new source.
3. Added the second to last paragraph under the In the Global South sub-section under the History section, 1 new source.
4. Added the Vietnam sub-section to the In the Global South sub-section, 4 new sources.

Additional: Economy of Vietnam

1. Added the last 2 paragraphs to the Development since 1997 sub-section under History section, 2 new sources.

Selecting possible articles

Articles for the sector of my practice experience have to do with the type of actions involved in my work.

• community development: I select this article to edit. I hope to add mostly to the Global South section. I would like to offer scholarly critiques of different community development methods throughout the entire article.
• Local development

Articles for the area of my practice experience involve geographical and cultural context.

• History of Vietnam
• North Vietnam
• Hanoi: I select this article to edit. There are many sections throughout the article that I feel like I could improve - grammatically, updating citations, adding information throughout. I would like to focus on the economic section since my practice experience will be working with developing communities, which heavily relies on the economy.

Evaluating two articles

Questions to consider:

• Is everything in the article relevant to the article topic? Is there anything that distracted you?
• What avenues do you find here for further learning that is relevant to your PE preparation?
• Is the article neutral? Are there any claims, or frames, that appear heavily biased toward a particular position?
• Are there viewpoints that are overrepresented, or underrepresented?
• Check a few citations. Do the links work? Does the source support the claims in the article?
• Look for links to other Wikipedia articles. Can you think of more such links that are relevant and that you could add?
• Is each fact referenced with an appropriate, reliable reference? Where does the information come from? Are these neutral sources? If biased, is that bias noted?
• Is any information out of date? Is anything missing that could be added?
• Check out the Talk page of the article. What kinds of conversations, if any, are going on behind the scenes about how to represent this topic?
• How is the article rated? Is it a part of any WikiProjects?
• What about your learning in GPP so far is different from how Wikipedia discusses this topic?

Hanoi

• Modern Hanoi: The main development discussed is the size and the increasing amount of large skyscrapers. I feel that there is more to be added here about the city's current cultural and sociological state. What else is significant besides the construction boom?
• Administrative divisions: The words "degraded" and "transformed" should be degraded and upgraded, to refer to the change in the categorization of a district. The District-level town (Vietnam) article should be cited for reference, as these terms are confusing to people unfamiliar with administrative divisions in Vietnam. Links should also be found for the terms commune-level towns (or townlets), communes, and wards, or else these terms should be briefly described.
• Demographics: A citation is needed for the population growth of Hanoi. A citation is needed for the end of the second paragraph. More could be added to this section in terms of statistics for the different ethnic groups of Hanoi.
• Economy: There is a heavy focus on the growth at the large-scale global economic status of Hanoi. Information should be added about the residents of Hanoi, their income distribution, type of jobs and pay, and the status of poverty and inequality.
• Education: The link citing the statement that 62% of scientists in the whole country are located in Hanoi is from 2007, over 10 years ago. This information needs to be updated.
• Health care and other facilities: Information about accessibility to healthcare should be added.
• International relations: Information about NGOs should be added here. More could be added about Hanoi's role on the international front.
• Talk page: The article was nominated to be a featured article candidate. The nomination was turned down due to the presence of dead links, lack of alt text (to explain photos), image clutter, and amount of bullet pointed lists instead of work done. It is concluded that the article needs a tremendous amount of work. This is shown in its rating as C-Class. This article is in need of improvement because it is listed as a level-4 vital article which means that it should be high quality. It is a part of the WikiProjects Vietnam, Southeast Asia, and Cities. I agree with the comment about a need to add information about pollution in Hanoi since the air quality is a big factor affecting in living conditions.

Summary

There are many statements and claims made in this article that can be updated with more reliable citations. In GPP we focus a lot on socioeconomic status and demographics. This article focuses less on those things and more on overall economic functioning. Something that would help tremendously with my PE experience is learning more about the administrative divisions in the city. This is extremely relevant to how community development takes place in Hanoi. It would be useful to me to learn about what the different statuses mean for the operation of a division.

Community development

• Introduction: There is a long quote in the second paragraph that can be taken out and explained in different words. This section could use more citations.
• Different approaches: I would like to add information about worker collaboratives and others about local organizing from the GPP readings. There is a list here of the different approaches, but I would like to add scholarly critiques about the different kinds. This section discusses how these methods work, but does not mention how they do not work.
• History: Expand on the history of how community development began. There are some grammatical issues with the first paragraph. Describe how the key people have influenced the making of community development. The mentioning of the Dragon Dreaming Project Management techniques seems out of place and without sufficient context. Further research can be done for the history of community development in the Global North. There is very little information on current undertakings for community development. Most of the description is focused on the 1970s and 80s. For the portion on the Global South, I could add a section specific to Southeast Asia. The last sentence of the second paragraph is vague and grammatically incorrect. This entire section could be split into types of initiatives, like health, education, etc. I can add more definitions of poverty to the end of this section from the GPP readings.
• Talk page: This article is a part of the WikiProjects Urban studies and planning, Community, and Sociology. It is rated under the Urban studies and planning and the Community projects as start class, which means that it is an article that is developing but remains quite incomplete. It has also been rated as having high importance. There isn't too much else on the Talk page besides rationales for deleting certain sections. This shows the need for tremendous work on this particular article.

Summary

Overall, this article is scattered and incomplete. It needs organizing and more context in many areas. I would like to add the methods of poverty alleviation and community organizing which I have learned from GPP 115 and 105 thus far, mostly in the Global South section and a little bit in the Global North section. The section on the Global South would be relevant to my PE because it discusses health and education programs. I would like to add a section on rural development as well. In my PE we will be analyzing solutions to these issues. This article focuses on methods, but lacks the critiques which we have learned in GPP. Adding information about which methods have failed or succeeded would benefit this article.

Bibliography

Modern Hanoi

Starting with doi moi, summarize from the 80s up to now, a modern cultural history of Hanoi from the last paragraph of p. 565.

Economy

There is much to be said about the informal sector of Hanoi under the Economy section.

Critiques of discourse about the potential ability of the informal sector as an alternative economy.

Development

This chapter on poverty alleviation in Vietnam argues that the performance of the Vietnamese economy in the past decade has been so successful that poverty was alleviated through market reforms despite the lack of explicit poverty alleviation initiatives. Unfortunately, the rate of income improvements among the poor remains slower than average. I will add this to the Economy section which indicates the recent rapid infrastructure developments in accordance with the success of the economy.

Almost all of the first part of the Development section was completed using Socio Economic Change and the Planning of Hanoi. Rapid urbanization is a result of the relaxation of internal population mobility, leading to unfamiliar demands of the market economy; the economic crisis which affected Vietnam and surrounding regions have altered Vietnamese urbanization as a phenomenon. This would give a much more in depth and broader context to the growth of the economy in Hanoi. -- Run through this entire article. It covers almost everything in Hanoi's development.

Vietnam is moving towards state corporatism, by conceding to the emergence of civic organizations (issue-oriented, professional, and business), while also keeping them under strict control. Processes of legalization and commercialization play a role in absolving civic organizations in the Vietnamese Communist Party political system. A section can be added about Hanoi's political economy, perhaps under the Economy section, about how the absolving of NGOs into the political system is especially notable in Hanoi, since the issue-oriented organizations here are more "tradition-bound", meaning they emphasize the importance of knowledge, teaching, education, and appealing to government organizations to solve social problems.

Comment on development in terms of housing in Hanoi somewhere in the development section. Hanoi's recent rapid population growth has created a need for housing development.

Education

Reform

Some history about education reform, and Hanoi's role in it.

Community development (7 total)

Different approaches

Gives summary of history of community development.

Worker cooperatives have challenges such as the tension between the co-operative's identity as a business and that of a values-oriented association of people, the limited scale, the significant resources required, and concerns over member priorities and retention. In order to be a progressive institution, these cooperatives must surmount these challenges and actively prioritize broader claims. I would like to add a definition section for the worker cooperative under the Different Approaches section because this is a type of organization which I believe contributes greatly and beneficially to community development initiatives.

History

Participatory governance institutions supports the adoption of social programs to benefit the poor by local governments, as shown by a case study in Brazil. This is a method that could be further elaborated on in the Global South section under History. I am thinking of splitting the Global North and Global South into 2 different sections, not under History.

Vietnam (section I created)

Discuss village development and commune development planning in Vietnam.

Discusses NGOs and how they actually do not really live up to creating a civil society in Vietnam. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1191/1464993402ps027ra

NGOs in Vietnam as VNGOs, overseen essentially by the government.

Authoritarianism in Vietnamese NGOs.

Salemink illustrates this issue through a case study wherein he observed a development program implementing in conjunction between provincial authorities and central Vietnam and a group of Dutch NGOs. His observations were that plans were altered due to conflicting interests, cultural backgrounds, and views of the stakeholders within the program, pointing to the differing ideological notions about civil society, the role of NGOs, and the role of the state. (not added to article)

Economy of Vietnam (2 total)

The corruption crackdown background.

Cite the main concerns for communities in Vietnam - corruption control and public services, as well as poverty and health resources.

Summarizing and synthesizing

I have underlined the sentences I added. Everything else has been copy-pasted from the original page.

History

Modern Hanoi

Once the Đổi Mới economic policies were approved in 1986, the Communist Party and national and municipal governments hoped to attract international investments for urban development projects. The high-rise commercial buildings did not begin to appear until ten years later due to the international investment community being skeptical of the security of their investments in Vietnam. Rapid urban development and rising costs displaced many residential areas in central Hanoi. Following a short period of economic stagnation after the 1997 Asian financial crisis, Hanoi resumed its rapid economic growth.ADDED

On 29 May 2008, it was decided that Hà Tây Province, Vĩnh Phúc Province's Mê Linh District and 4 communes of Lương Sơn District, Hòa Bình Province be merged into the metropolitan area of Hanoi from 1 August 2008. Hanoi's total area then increased to 334,470 hectares in 29 subdivisions with the new population being 6,232,940., effectively tripling its size. The Hanoi Capital Region (Vùng Thủ đô Hà Nội), a metropolitan area covering Hanoi and 6 surrounding provinces under its administration, will have an area of 13,436 square kilometres (5,188 sq mi) with 15 million people by 2020.

Hanoi has experienced a rapid construction boom recently. Skyscrapers, popping up in new urban areas, have dramatically changed the cityscape and have formed a modern skyline outside the old city. In 2015, Hanoi is ranked # 39 by Emporis in the list of world cities with most skyscrapers over 100 m; its two tallest buildings are Hanoi Landmark 72 Tower (336 m, tallest in Vietnam and second tallest in southeast Asia after Malaysia's Petronas Twin Towers) and Hanoi Lotte Center (272 m, also, second tallest in Vietnam).

Public outcry in opposition to the redevelopment of culturally significant areas persuaded the national government to implement a low-rise policy surrounding Hoàn Kiếm Lake. The Ba Đình District is also well protected from commercial redevelopment.ADDED

Economy

Hanoi was ranked to be the fastest growing city in the world in terms of GDP growth from 2008 to 2025. In 2013, Hanoi contributed 12.6% to GDP, exported 7.5% of total exports, contributed 17% to the national budget and attracted 22% of investment capital of Vietnam. The city's nominal GDP at current prices reached 451,213 billion VND (21.48 billion USD) in 2013, which made per capita GDP stand at 63.3 million VND (3,000 USD). Industrial production in the city has experienced a rapid boom since the 1990s, with an average annual growth of 19.1% from 1991–95, 15.9% from 1996–2000, and 20.9% from 2001–2003. In addition to eight existing industrial parks, Hanoi is building five new large-scale industrial parks and 16 small- and medium-sized industrial clusters. The non-state economic sector is expanding fast, with more than 48,000 businesses currently operating under the Enterprise Law (as of 3/2007). Trade is another strong sector of the city. In 2003, Hanoi had 2,000 businesses engaged in foreign trade, having established ties with 161 countries and territories. The city's export value grew by an average 11.6 percent each year from 1996–2000 and 9.1 percent during 2001–2003. The economic structure also underwent important shifts, with tourism, finance, and banking now playing an increasingly important role. Hanoi's business districts are traditionally Hoàn Kiếm, Đống Đa District and the neighborhood; and a newly developing Cầu Giấy and Từ Liêm in the western part.

Similar to Ho Chi Minh City, Hanoi enjoys a rapidly developing real estate market. The current most notable new urban areas are central Trung Hòa Nhân Chính, Mỹ Đình, the luxurious zones of The Manor, Ciputra, Royal City in the Nguyễn Trãi Street (Thanh Xuân District) and Times City in the Hai Bà Trưng District.

Agriculture, previously a pillar in Hanoi's economy, has striven to reform itself, introducing new high-yield plant varieties and livestock, and applying modern farming techniques.

After the economic reforms that initiated economic growth, Hanoi's appearance has also changed significantly, especially in recent years. Infrastructure is constantly being upgraded, with new roads and an improved public transportation system. Hanoi has allowed many fast-food chains into the city, such as Jollibee, Lotteria, Pizza Hut, KFC, and others. Locals in Hanoi perceive the ability to purchase "fast-food" as an indication of luxury and permanent fixtures.

Over three-quarters of the jobs in Hanoi are state-owned. 9% of jobs are provided by collectively owned organizations. 13.3% of jobs are in the private sector. The structure of employment has been changing rapidly as state-owned institutions downsize and private enterprises grow. Hanoi has in-migration controls which allow the city to accept only people who add skills Hanoi's economy. A 2006 census found that 5,600 rural produce vendors exist in Hanoi, with 90% of them coming from surrounding rural areas. These numbers indicate the much greater earning potential in urban rather than in rural spaces. The uneducated, rural, and mostly female street vendors are depicted as participants of "microbusiness" and local grassroots economic development by business reports. In July 2008, Hanoi's city government devised a policy to partially ban street vendors and side-walk based commerce on 62 streets due to concerns about public health and "modernizing" the city's image to attract foreigners. Many foreigners believe that the vendors add a traditional and nostalgic aura to the city, although street vending was much less common prior to the 1986 Đổi Mới policies. The vendors have not able to form effective resistance tactics to the ban and remain embedded in the dominant capitalist framework of modern Hanoi. ADDED

Development

Infrastructural development

A development master plan for Hanoi was designed by Ernest Hebrard in 1924, but was only partially implemented. The close relationship between the Soviet Union and Vietnam led to the creation of the first comprehensive plan for Hanoi with the assistance of Soviet planners between 1981 and 1984. It was never realized because it appeared to be incompatible with Hanoi's existing layout.

In recent years, two master plans have been created to guide Hanoi's development. The first was the Hanoi Master Plan 1990-2010, approved in April 1992. It was created out of collaboration between planners from Hanoi and the National Institute of Urban and Rural Planning in the Ministry of Construction. The plan's three main objectives were to create housing and a new commercial center in an area known as Nghĩa Đô, expand residential and industrial areas in the Gia Lâm District, and develop the three southern corridors linking Hanoi to Hà Đông and the Thanh Trì District. The end result of the land-use pattern was meant to resemble a five cornered star by 2010. In 1998, a revised version of the Hanoi Master plan was approved to be completed in 2020. It addressed the significant increase of population projections within Hanoi. Population densities and high rise buildings in the inner city were planned to be limited to protect the old parts of inner Hanoi. A rail transport system is planned to be built to expand public transport and link the Hanoi to surrounding areas. Projects such as airport upgrading, a golf course, and cultural villages have been approved for development by the government.

Hanoi is still faced with the problems associated with increasing urbanization. The disparity of wealth between the rich and the poor is a problem in both the capital and throughout the country. Hanoi's public infrastructure is in poor condition. The city has frequent power cuts, air and water pollution, poor road conditions, traffic congestion, and a rudimentary public transit system. Traffic congestion and air pollution are worsening as the number of motor cycles increases. Squatter settlements are expanding on the outer rim of the city as homelessness rises.

In the late 1980s, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Vietnamese government designed a project to develop rural infrastructure. The project focused on improving roads, water supply and sanitation, and educational, health and social facilities because economic development in the communes and rural areas surrounding Hanoi is dependent on the infrastructural links between the rural and urban areas, especially for the sale of rural products.. The project aimed to use locally available resources and knowledge such as compressed earth construction techniques for building. It was jointly funded by the UNDP, the Vietnamese government, and resources raised by the local communities and governments. In four communes, the local communities contributed 37% of the total budget. Local labor, community support, and joint funding were decided as necessary for the long-term sustainability of the project.

Civil society development

Part of the goals of the dổi mới economic reforms was to decentralize governance for purpose of economic improvement. This led to the establishment of the first issue-oriented civic organizations in Hanoi. In the 1990s, Hanoi experienced significant poverty alleviation as a result of both the market reforms and civil society movements. Most of the civic organizations in Hanoi were established after 1995, at a rate much slower than in Ho Chi Minh City. Organizations in Hanoi are more "tradition-bound," focused on policy, education, research, professional interests, and appealing to governmental organizations to solve social problems. This marked difference from Ho Chi Minh's civic organizations, which practice more direct intervention to tackle social issues, may be attributed to the different societal identities of North and South Vietnam. Hanoi-based civic organizations use more systematic development and less of a direct intervention approach to deal with issues of rural development, poverty alleviation, and environmental protection. They rely more heavily on full-time staff than volunteers. In Hanoi, 16.7% of civic organizations accept anyone as a registered member and 73.9% claim to have their own budgets, as opposed to 90.9% in Ho Chi Minh City. A majority of the civic organizations in Hanoi find it difficult to work with governmental organizations. Many of the strained relations between non-governmental and governmental organizations results from statism, a bias against non-state organizations on the part of government entities.

Education

Indochina Medical College in the early 20th century, today the Hanoi Medical University

Hanoi, as the capital of French Indochina, was home to the first Western-style universities in Indochina, including: Indochina Medical College (1902) – now Hanoi Medical University, Indochina University (1904) – now Hanoi National University (the largest), and École Supérieure des Beaux-Arts de l'Indochine (1925) – now Hanoi University of Fine Art.

After the Communist Party of Vietnam took control of Hanoi in 1954, many new universities were built, among them, Hanoi University of Technology, still the largest technical university in Vietnam. Recently ULIS (University of Languages and International Studies) was rated as one of the top universities in south-east Asia for languages and language studies at the undergraduate level. Other universities that are not part of Vietnam National University or Hanoi University include Hanoi School for Public Health and Hanoi School of Agriculture and University of Transport and Communications.

Hanoi is the largest center of education in Vietnam. It is estimated that 62% of the scientists in the country are living and working in Hanoi. Admissions to undergraduate study are through entrance examinations, which are conducted annually and open to everyone who has successfully completed secondary education in the country. The majority of universities in Hanoi are public, although in recent years a number of private universities have begun operation. Thăng Long University, founded in 1988 by Vietnamese mathematics professors in Hanoi and France, was the first private university in Vietnam. Since many of Vietnam's major universities are located in Hanoi, students from other provinces, especially in the northern part of Vietnam, who want to enter university often travel to Hanoi for the annual entrance examination. Such events usually take place in June and July, during which a large number of students and their families converge on the city for several weeks around the intense examination period. In recent years, these entrance exams have been centrally coordinated by the Ministry of Education. Entrance requirements are decided independently by each university.

Although there are state owned kindergartens, there are also many private ventures that serve both local and international needs. Elementary and secondary schools in Hanoi are mostly state run, but there are also some independent schools. Education is equivalent to the K–12 system in the U.S., with elementary school hosting grades 1 through 5, middle school hosting grades 6 through 9, and high school hosting grades 10 through 12.

Education levels are much higher within the city of Hanoi in comparison the the suburban areas outside the city. About 33.8% of the labor force in the city has completed secondary school in contrast to 19.4% in the suburbs. 21% of the labor force in the city has completed tertiary education in contrast to 4.1% in the suburbs. ADDED

Reform

Country-wide educational change is difficult in countries like Vietnam, due to the restrictive control of the government on social and economic development strategies. According to Hanoi government publications, the national system of education was reformed in 1950, 1956 and 1970. It was not until 1975 when the two separate education systems of the former North and South Vietnam territories became unified under a single national system. In Hanoi in December 1996, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Vietnam stated that: "To carry out industrialization and modernization successfully, it is necessary to develop education and training strongly [and to] maximize human resources, the key factor of fast and sustained development."ADDED

Different approaches

There are numerous overlapping approaches to community development. Some focus on the processes, while others focus on the outcomes / objectives. They include:

• Women Self-help Group; focusing on the contribution of women in settlement groups.
• Community capacity building; focusing on helping communities obtain, strengthen, and maintain the ability to set and achieve their own development objectives.
• Large Group Capacitation; an adult education and social psychology approach grounded in the activity of the individual and the social psychology of the large group focusing on large groups of unemployed or semi-employed participants, many of whom with Lower Levels of Literacy (LLLs).
• Social capital formation; focusing on benefits derived from the cooperation between individuals and groups.
• Nonviolent direct action; when a group of people take action to reveal an existing problem, highlight an alternative, or demonstrate a possible solution to a social issue which is not being addressed through traditional societal institutions (governments, religious organizations or established trade unions) are not addressing to the satisfaction of the direct action participants.
• Economic development, focusing on the "development" of developing countries as measured by their economies, although it includes the processes and policies by which a nation improves the economic, political, and social well-being of its people.
• Community economic development (CED); an alternative to conventional economic development which encourages using local resources in a way that enhances economic outcomes while improving social conditions. For example, CED involves strategies which aim to improve access to affordable housing, medical, and child care.
  • A worker cooperative is a progressive CED strategy that operates as businesses both managed and owned by their employees. They are beneficial due to their potential to create jobs and providing a route for grassroots political action. Some challenges that the worker cooperative faces include the mending of the cooperative’s identity as both business and as a democratic humanitarian organization. They are limited in resources and scale. ADDED
• Sustainable development; which seeks to achieve, in a balanced manner, economic development, social development and environmental protection outcomes.
• Community-driven development (CDD), an economic development model which shifts overreliance on central governments to local communities.
• Asset-based community development (ABCD); is a methodology that seeks to uncover and use the strengths within communities as a means for sustainable development.
• Faith-based community development; which utilizes faith-based organizations to bring about community development outcomes.
• Community-based participatory research (CBPR); a partnership approach to research that equitably involves, for example, community members, organizational representatives, and researchers in all aspects of the research process and in which all partners contribute expertise and share decision making and ownership, which aims to integrate this knowledge with community development outcomes.
• Community organizing; a term used to describe an approach that generally assumes that social change necessarily involves conflict and social struggle in order to generate collective power for the powerless.
• Participatory planning including community-based planning (CBP); involving the entire community in the strategic and management processes of urban planning; or, community-level planning processes, urban or rural.
• Language-based development; or Language revitalization focuses on the use of a language so that it serves the needs of a community. This may involve the creation of books, films and other media in the language. These actions help a small language community to preserve their language and culture.
• Methodologies focusing on the educational component of community development, including the community-wide empowerment that increased educational opportunity creates.
• Methodologies addressing the issues and challenges of the Digital divide, making affordable training and access to computers and the Internet, addressing the marginalisation of local communities that cannot connect and participate in the global Online community. In the United States, nonprofit organizations such as Per Scholas provide education, technology, and economic opportunities to disadvantaged groups with goals to alleviate poverty in communities.

There are a myriad of job titles for community development workers and their employers include public authorities and voluntary or non-governmental organisations, funded by the state and by independent grant making bodies. Since the nineteen seventies the prefix word 'community' has also been adopted by several other occupations from the police and health workers to planners and architects, who have been influenced by community development approaches.

History

In the "Global South"

Community planning techniques drawing on the history of utopian movements became important in the 1920s and 1930s in East Africa, where community development proposals were seen as a way of helping local people improve their own lives with indirect assistance from colonial authorities.

Mohandas K. Gandhi adopted African community development ideals as a basis of his South African Ashram, and then introduced it as a part of the Indian Swaraj movement, aiming at establishing economic interdependence at village level throughout India. With Indian independence, despite the continuing work of Vinoba Bhave in encouraging grassroots land reform, India under its first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru adopted a mixed-economy approach, mixing elements of socialism and capitalism. During the fifties and sixties, India ran a massive community development programme with focus on rural development activities through government support. This was later expanded in scope and was called integrated rural development scheme [IRDP]. A large number of initiatives that can come under the community development umbrella have come up in recent years.

The main objective of community development in India remains to develop the villages and to help the villagers help themselves to fight against poverty, illiteracy, malnutrition, etc. The beauty of Indian model of community development lies in the homogeneity of villagers and high level of participation.

Community development became a part of the Ujamaa Villages established in Tanzania by Julius Nyerere, where it had some success in assisting with the delivery of education services throughout rural areas, but has elsewhere met with mixed success. In the 1970s and 1980s, community development became a part of "Integrated Rural Development", a strategy promoted by United Nations Agencies and the World Bank. Central to these policies of community development were:

• Adult literacy programs, drawing on the work of Brazilian educator Paulo Freire and the "Each One Teach One" adult literacy teaching method conceived by Frank Laubach.
• Youth and women's groups, following the work of the Serowe Brigades of Botswana, of Patrick van Rensburg.
• Development of community business ventures and particularly cooperatives, in part drawn on the examples of José María Arizmendiarrieta and the Mondragon Cooperatives of the Basque region of Spain
• Compensatory education for those missing out in the formal education system, drawing on the work of Open Education as pioneered by Michael Young.
• Dissemination of alternative technologies, based upon the work of E. F. Schumacher as advocated in his book Small is Beautiful: Economics as if people really mattered
• Village nutrition programs and permaculture projects, based upon the work of Australians Bill Mollison and David Holmgren.
• Village water supply programs

In the 1990s, following critiques of the mixed success of "top down" government programs, and drawing on the work of Robert Putnam, in the rediscovery of social capital, community development internationally became concerned with social capital formation. In particular the outstanding success of the work of Muhammad Yunus in Bangladesh with the Grameen Bank from its inception in 1976, has led to the attempts to spread microenterprise credit schemes around the world. Yunus saw that social problems like poverty and disease were not being solved by the market system on its own. Thus, he established a banking system which lends to the poor with very little interest, allowing them access to entrepreneurship. This work was honoured by the 2006 Nobel Peace Prize.

Another alternative to "top down" government programs is the participatory government institution. Participatory governance institutions are organizations which aim to facilitate the participation of citizens within larger decision making and action implementing processes in society. A case study done on municipal councils and social housing programs in Brazil found that the presence of participatory governance institutions supports the implementation of poverty alleviation programs by local governments. ADDED

The "human scale development" work of Right Livelihood Award-winning Chilean economist Manfred Max Neef promotes the idea of development based upon fundamental human needs, which are considered to be limited, universal and invariant to all human beings (being a part of our human condition). He considers that poverty results from the failure to satisfy a particular human need, it is not just an absence of money. Whilst human needs are limited, Max Neef shows that the ways of satisfying human needs is potentially unlimited. Satisfiers also have different characteristics: they can be violators or destroyers, pseudosatisfiers, inhibiting satisfiers, singular satisfiers, or synergic satisfiers. Max-Neef shows that certain satisfiers, promoted as satisfying a particular need, in fact inhibit or destroy the possibility of satisfying other needs: e.g., the arms race, while ostensibly satisfying the need for protection, in fact then destroys subsistence, participation, affection and freedom; formal democracy, which is supposed to meet the need for participation often disempowers and alienates; commercial television, while used to satisfy the need for recreation, interferes with understanding, creativity and identity. Synergic satisfiers, on the other hand, not only satisfy one particular need, but also lead to satisfaction in other areas: some examples are breastfeeding; self-managed production; popular education; democratic community organizations; preventative medicine; meditation; educational games.

Vietnam

International organizations apply the term community in Vietnam to the local administrative unit, each with a traditional identity based on traditional, cultural, and kinship relations. Community development strategies in Vietnam aim to organize communities in ways that increase their capacities to partner with institutions, the participation of local people, transparency and equality, and unity within local communities. ADDED

Social and economic development planning (SDEP) in Vietnam uses top-down centralized planning methods and decision-making processes which do not consider local context and local participation. The plans created by SDEP are ineffective and serve mainly for administrative purposes. Local people are not informed of these development plans. The participatory rural appraisal (PRA) approach, a research methodology that allows local people to share and evaluate their own life conditions, was introduced to Vietnam in the early 1990s to help reform the way that government approaches local communities and development. PRA was used as a tool for mostly outsiders to learn about the local community, which did not effect substantial change.ADDED

The village/commune development (VDP/CDP) approach was developed as a more fitting approach than PRA to analyze local context and address the needs of rural communities. VDP/CDP participatory planning is centered around Ho Chi Minh's saying that "People know, people discuss and people supervise." VDP/CDP is often useful in Vietnam for shifting centralized management to more decentralization, helping develop local governance at the grassroots level. Local people use their knowledge to solve local issues. They create mid-term and yearly plans that help improve existing community development plans with the support of government organizations. Although VDP/CDP has been tested in many regions in Vietnam, it has not been fully implemented for a couple reasons. The methods applied in VDP/CDP are human resource and capacity building intensive, especially at the early stages. It also requires the local people to have an "initiative-taking" attitude. People in the remote areas where VDP/CDP has been tested have mostly passive attitudes because they already receive assistance from outsiders. There also are no sufficient monitoring practices to ensure effective plan implementation. Integrating VDP/CDP into the governmental system is difficult because the Communist Party and Central government's policies on decentralization are not enforced in reality.ADDED

Non-governmental organizations (NGO) in Vietnam, legalized in 1991, have claimed goals to develop civil society, which was essentially nonexistent prior to the Đổi Mới economic reforms. NGO operations in Vietnam do not exactly live up to their claimed goals to expand civil society. This is mainly due to the fact that NGOs in Vietnam are mostly donor-driven, urban, and elite-based organizations that employ staff with ties to the Communist Party and Central government. NGOs are also overlooked by the Vietnam Fatherland Front, an umbrella organization that reports observations directly to the Party and Central government. Since NGOs in Vietnam are not entirely non-governmental, they have been coined instead as 'VNGOs.' Most VNGOs have originated from either the state, hospital or university groups, or individuals not previously associated with any groups. VNGOs have not yet reached those most in need, such as the rural poor, due to the entrenched power networks' opposition to lobbying for issues such the rural poor's land rights. Authoritarianism is prevalent in nearly all Vietnamese civic organizations. Authoritarian practices are more present in inner-organizational functions than in organization leaders' worldviews. These leaders often reveal both authoritarian and libertarian values in contradiction. Representatives of Vietnam's NGO's stated that disagreements are normal, but conflicts within an organization should be avoided, demonstrating the one-party "sameness" mentality of authoritarian rule. ADDED

Economy of Vietnam

Development since 1997

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Poverty remains to be the main concern on the national performance index as of 2018. The Provincial Governance and Public Administration Performance Index (PAPI) found that 28% of survey respondents cited poverty as their main problem. Most respondents agreed with the statement that "[P]overty reduction is imperative to ensuring that Vietnam becomes an advanced, developed country. The percentage of the poorest Vietnamese respondents who believed that their economic situation would worsen increased from 13% in 2016 to 26% in 2017. The percentage of respondents with health insurance increased from 74% in 2016 to 81% in 2017, with strongest gains in the rural population groups.

In 2017, Transparency International, a non-profit that tracks graft ranked Vietnam as 113th worst out of 176 countries and regions for perceptions of corruption. Several graft cases found in 2016 and 2017 led to the corruption crackdown which prosecuted many bankers, businesspeople, and government officials under charges of corruption. PAPI found that bribery at public district hospital services decreased from 17% in 2016 to 9% in 2017. Reports of land seizures went down from an average of about 9% before 2013, to less than 7% in 2017. The amount of respondents who believed that their land was sold at a fair market value decreased from 26% in 2014 to 21% in 2017. Land-use graft and petty graft, such as police officers accepting bribes, are common. Vietnam has been privatizing many of its state-owned operations to reduce corruption and increase efficiency. ADDED