Cheng-Han

Cheng-Han (303 or 304 – 347) was a dynastic state of China listed as one of the Sixteen Kingdoms in Chinese historiography. Ruled by the Li clan of the Ba-Di people, its territory was based in what is modern-day Sichuan Province, China. The name Cheng-Han collectively refers to the state of Cheng (成; Chéng) or Dacheng (大成; Dàchéng), founded by Li Xiong in 304 (or by Li Te in 303) and the state of Han (漢; Hàn) founded by Li Shou in 338. The state is also less commonly known as Later Shu (後蜀; Hòu Shǔ).

Background
The Li clan were originally Cong people from Baxi Commandery (巴西郡; in present-day Nanchong, Sichuan) in present-day Sichuan. When the Han chancellor, Cao Cao conquered Hanzhong in 215, Li Hu (李虎) led his family to surrender and migrated to Lüeyang Commandery, where they mingled with the local Di tribes. Their people became known as the Ba-Di, with “Ba” referring to their ancestral homeland. In 296, the Di chieftain, Qi Wannian, led a tribal rebellion against the Western Jin dynasty. The rebellion devastated the Guanzhong region, creating an influx of Han and non-Han refugees fleeing south into Hanzhong and Sichuan.

Among the refugees, the Li clan grew to prominence after the Inspector of Yi, Zhao Xin rebelled in 299. They joined him and served as key generals, but later overthrew him and took the provincial capital, Chengdu in 300. Li Te submitted to Jin in light of the Jin army’s arrival led by the new provincial inspector, Luo Shang, but from this point on, he acted as a representative for the influential refugee families in the region.

Tension grew between Li Te and Luo Shang due to an order from the imperial court demanding the refugees to return to their homes. The refugees were reluctant to make the journey, as the north was reportedly still unstable. Li Te negotiated with Luo Shang to extend their stay, but the latter soon grew frustrated by the delay and tried to force a move. In 301, Luo Shang’s forces attacked the refugees and began Li Te's rebellion.

Cheng (304–338)
Li Te had much success against the Jin forces and reached the outskirts of Chengdu in 303. Shortly after, he declared a new reign era, which hinted his intention of founding a new state but was suddenly killed in an ambush. Nonetheless, his brother, Li Liu succeeded him, followed by Li Te’s son, Li Xiong. In 304, Li Xiong ousted Luo Shang from Chengdu, where he declared himself the King of Chengdu. His declaration is seen by most historians as the beginning of the Cheng-Han dynasty, although there is also the view that the state began with Li Te’s proclamation. Regardless, the Cheng was the first of the Sixteen Kingdoms to be founded, followed closely by the Xiongnu-led Han-Zhao dynasty in the north.

Li Xiong elevated himself to Emperor of Cheng in 306. Luo Shang, now commanding from Ba Commandery (巴郡; present-day Chongqing), continued to threaten Cheng, but after his death in 310, the Jin forces became disarray, allowing Cheng to dispatch them and consolidate their rule. Cheng became a refuge for people fleeing from the disorder in northern China, with some of them becoming officials in their administration. Notably, in 314, a group of rebelling refugees in Hanzhong surrendered the region to Cheng. Li Xiong and his family were also followers of the Way of the Five Pecks of Rice, and Taoism was popular in Sichuan and Hanzhong. He appointed the Taoist hermit, Fan Changsheng as his Prime Minister, with his son, Fan Ben, later succeeding him.

For most of his reign, Li Xiong maintained peace and stability within his state, but issues arose following his death in 334. Intending to pass the throne to the line of his late elder brother, Li Dang, Li Xiong chose his nephew Li Ban to succeed him, a decision that angered his own sons. Meanwhile, the Cheng court was also divided on the direction of the state; as Cheng had many Han Chinese officials serving under them, and with the Eastern Jin dynasty firmly established in the east, some ministers believed that Cheng should be a vassal of Jin while others wanted to maintain its independence. In 334, shortly after ascending the throne, Li Ban was killed and usurped by Li Xiong’s son, Li Qi.

Han (338–347)
In 338, Li Qi’s father's cousin, Li Shou forced him to abdicate and took the throne for himself. Li Shou renamed the state from Cheng to Han, named so after his peerage and wanting to distance himself from Li Xiong's line. For this reason, historiographers collectively refer to Li Xiong and Li Shou’s states as Cheng-Han. Li Shou initially promised to only rule for a few years before submitting to Jin to appease the court but soon reneged on his words. Instead, he imitated his rule after the Later Zhao dynasty in the north by imposing harsher laws, taxes and corvee labor on his citizens and building lavish palaces.

Li Shou died in 343 and was succeeded by his son Li Shi. His reign was plagued by a succession crisis, a popular revolt by one of his generals and a sudden influx of Rau people entering his territory. The situation in Han caught the attention of the Jin commander, Huan Wen, who was looking to elevate his own prestige. In 346, Huan Wen set off to conquer Han, and in 347, he reached Chengdu and forced Li Shi to surrender, ending the Cheng-Han dynasty. Li Shi was sent to Jiankang, where he lived before dying of natural causes in 361.