Cyrus of Alexandria

Cyrus of Alexandria (المقوقس al-Muqawqis, Κῦρος Ἀλεξανδρείας; 6th century - 21 March 642) was a prominent figure in the 7th century. He served as a Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria and held the position of the second-last Byzantine prefect of Egypt. Notably, he played a significant role in the development of monothelitism. Cyrus died in Alexandria on March 21, 642.

Bishop of Phasis
In 620, he assumed the position of Bishop of Phasis in Colchis. In 626, during the Persian campaign led by the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, he was consulted regarding a plan proposed by Sergius, the Patriarch of Constantinople, aimed at reconciling the Miaphysites of Egypt with the Church and gaining their support for the empire. This plan, known as the monenergist plan, involved accepting the Chalcedonian principle of two natures of Christ while effectively nullifying it by asserting that he possessed only one energy, referred to as hèn thélema kaì mía enérgeia (ἓν θέλημα καὶ μία ἐνέργεια). Cyrus embraced this formula after Sergius assured him that Pope Honorius I in Rome had endorsed it and that it did not contradict the teachings of the Church Fathers or the decisions made at the Council of Chalcedon. Cyrus was subsequently appointed by Heraclius as the Bishop of Alexandria in 630, in opposition to the Miaphysite Patriarch of Alexandria, with the intention of implementing this plan.

Patriach of Alexandria
Cyrus, once patriarch, made persistent efforts to reconcile the Miaphysites and Chalcedonians by promoting monenergism, which eventually developed into monothelitism—a belief in a single will. In June 633, he presented the Pact of Union, also known as the plerophoría of "Satisfactio," during a synod held in Alexandria. This agreement consisted of nine articles, with the seventh one boldly asserting monothelitism. Although the Miaphysites, also referred to as Theodosians or Severians, welcomed the pact, they maintained that Chalcedon should come to them rather than vice versa. During this time, numerous clergy, soldiers, and common people converted to Cyrus's position, but the change did not endure

There was an expectation that Pope Honorius I would be persuaded to adopt the monothelete stance. In 636, Cyrus attended another synod in Cyprus under Arkadios II, where he served as a moderator. He allowed opponents of Monothelitism to present their case to the Emperor. After receiving the Emperor's Monothelite response, known as the Ecthesis, Cyrus signed it in 637. However, the monothelete compromise ultimately proved ineffective. It was condemned at the Lateran Council of 649 and soon lost credibility, earning the derogatory name "enôsis hydrobaphès" or "washy union" in Medieval Greek.

For a period of ten years, Cyrus harshly persecuted the Egyptians, attempting to forcefully convert them to his faith. However, the majority of the Egyptian people did not recognize him as their patriarch. Instead, they acknowledged Pope Benjamin I, who went into hiding and was relentlessly pursued by Cyrus, though without success. In one instance, Cyrus's troops captured Benjamin's brother, Mennas, subjecting him to a brutal torture. According to Severus ibn al-Muqaffa, Mennas was burned with torches until the fat dripped from his sides to the ground. Despite this torment, Mennas remained steadfast, refusing to renounce his faith even when his teeth were pulled out. He was then placed in a sack filled with sand, taken by boat a considerable distance from the shore, and thrown into the sea where he drowned. The biographer of Benjamin noted, "Yet it was not they who were victorious over Mennas, that champion of the faith, but Mennas who by Christian patience overcame them."

On another occasion, Cyrus summoned Samuel the Confessor, an Egyptian abbot, and had him brought in chains. Samuel, full of joy in the Lord, expressed his willingness to shed his blood for the name of Christ. When Cyrus saw him, he ordered the soldiers to beat him mercilessly until his blood flowed abundantly. Cyrus questioned Samuel, saying, "Samuel, you wicked ascetic, who appointed you as the abbot of the monastery and instructed you to teach the monks to curse me and my faith?" The holy Abba Samuel responded, "It is better to obey God and His holy Archbishop Benjamin than to obey you and your devilish doctrine, O son of Satan, Antichrist, Beguiler." Enraged by Samuel's words, Cyrus commanded the soldiers to strike him dead, but the ruler of Faiyum intervened and saved him from their hands. As a result, Cyrus ordered Samuel to be banished from the Nitrian Desert.

Cyrus appointed Chalcedonian bishops to govern every Egyptian city up to Ansena, and Coptic priests were put to death whenever discovered. Despite the absence of priests, the Coptic people continued to hold secret gatherings. One priest, Agathon, risked his life each night to administer communion in Alexandria. Later, he succeeded Benjamin as Pope. Some Copts made an attempt on Cyrus's life, but the plot was uncovered by Eudocianus, the brother of Domentianus, who was a general in the Muslim conquest of Egypt. The conspirators were summarily executed without trial.

Military prefect
During the period when Umar's general, 'Amr ibn al-'As, also known as Amru to the Romans, posed a threat to the Prefecture of Egypt, Cyrus was both the governor of Egypt and the government-appointed Patriarch of Alexandria, and Theodore was the commander-in-chief of the Byzantine army in the province. At this time, the governor of Faiyum was Domentianus (who was also married to Cyrus' sister), while Anastasius was the prefect of its province, Arcadia Aegypti, and Theodosius was the prefect of Alexandria. The defence of Arcadia Aegypti was entrusted to a certain John, who Hermann Zotenberg identifies with the John, Duke of Barca or Barcaina mentioned by Nicephorus. He had brought the Ecthesis and a portion of the True Cross from Patriarch Sergius to Cyrus, and was likely on a direct commission from Emperor Heraclius.

Butler described Cyrus as having a "strange anxiety all through the war to hasten the submission of Egypt". He seems to have been present at the siege of Babylon Fortress, where on 22 December 640 he negotiated a treaty with the Arabs involving the surrender of the Thebaid. This treaty would have had to be ratified by the Emperor Heraclius, but Cyrus stipulated that even if the emperor repudiated the treaty, he and the Egyptians, would honour its terms. He then sent a letter to Heraclius, asking him to ratify the treaty and telling him that the Arabs were invincible and it was necessary. Heraclius was furious and sent Cyrus a letter full of insults, calling him an abject coward and a heathen and asking whether 100,000 Romans were a match for 12,000 barbarians. He recalled Cyrus and Theodore to Constantinople to discuss whether they should surrender to the Arabs or continue fighting.

Visit to Constantinople
Heraclius died in February 641, two months before the fall of the Babylon Fortress, and was succeeded by his two sons Constantine III and Heraclonas as co-emperors. Heraclonas' mother, Martina, ruled through Heraclonas because of his young age and consistently opposed Constantine. Constantine, following his father's wishes, summoned Cyrus and Theodore to Constantinople to discuss the invasion. Cyrus was in favour of surrendering to the Muslims, whereas Theodore wanted to continue fighting them and hoped the Emperor would send reinforcements to Egypt. Constantine had been preparing a fleet to send to Egypt, but died on May 25 after a reign of just 100 days. With Heraclonas as sole emperor, Martina gained complete control over the government. She had Heraclonas give Cyrus express permission to make peace at any price with the Arabs, but also gave him reinforcements and a new general named Constantine to replace John. After Theodore and Cyrus' left for Egypt with reinforcements, Martina was deposed by Valentine, who sent envoys to Rhodes with a message to Cyrus' troops, telling them to return to Constantinople and not to side with Cyrus. He also sent a letter to Alexandria telling the defenders not to obey Martina, and to keep fighting. Theodore was pleased to hear this, and without telling Cyrus or anyone but the captain, he secretly attempted to sail from Rhodes to Pentapolis. However, the captain of the ship claimed the wind was contrary to him, and Theodore was stuck with Cyrus. They returned to Alexandria on September 14, 641, the Feast of the Cross.

Meanwhile in Egypt, Anastius had been appointed temporary prefect of Egypt, and during his time the Muslims captured both Babylon and Nikiu. Domentianus and his soldiers were guarding Nikiu. When he saw the enemy approaching cravenly fled the city in a small boat, leaving his soldiers to their fate. They attempted to follow him, but in the panic the boatmen fled to their home provinces, leaving many of the soldiers stranded. When the Arabs arrived, the soldiers threw their weapons into the water before their enemies, hoping to be spared, but instead they were all massacred. According to John of Nikiu, the only man who lived to tell the tale was a "gallant warrior" named Zacharias. John of Nikiu also says that "Egypt also had become enslaved to Satan. A great strife had broken out between the inhabitants of Lower Egypt, and these were divided into two parties. Of these, one sided with Theodore, but the other wished to join the Moslem." The Muslims had also begun their Siege of Alexandria.

Siege of Alexandria
When Theodore returned to Alexandria, he dismissed Domentianus as the military commander of the garrison and exiled him from the city, replacing him with Menas, who was a non-Chalcedonian Copt and popular with the army. Menas held a grudge against Domentianus' brother Eudocianus for Eudocianus' torture of the Coptic prisoners in Babylon. Theodore was angry with Domentianus for his cowardly flight from Nikiu and took Menas' side in their quarrel. Despite being brothers-in-law, Domentianus also disrespected Cyrus and showed him unreasonable hatred. He enlisted the Blues in Alexandria to his side, to which Menas responded by enlisting the Greens. There also came to Alexandria Philiades, prefect of the province of Faiyum and brother of Patriarch George I of Alexandria. Philiades was Menas' friend, but unlike Menas he was corrupt and unpopular, so much so that he was nearly lynched.

Since Theodore and Cyrus' arrival in Egypt was on September 14, 641, the Feast of the Cross, a great procession was organised from their landing place to the Caesareum Church. Their entire path was covered in carpets, hymns were sung, and a piece of the True Cross which was earlier brought to Egypt by John, Duke of Barcaina, and stored by the monks of Tabenna, was carried with Cyrus and Theodore to the Caesareum. The Psalm reading of the day was, but the deacon said another psalm hoping to praise Cyrus and congratulate him on his return. This was said to be a bad omen. Cyrus then gave a sermon about the discovery of the True Cross, perhaps encouraging them to resist the siege in the name of the Cross, despite having already decided in himself to forsake the Cross and surrender to the Muslims.

Cyrus then went to Babylon to negotiate with 'Amr, and agreed the following treaty: He then returned to Alexandria and reported the terms of this humiliating treaty to Theodore and Constantine, convincing them that it was necessary and telling them to report it to the Emperor Heraclonas, who ratified it in what may had been his last act as Emperor, as he died in November. The local populace was not informed of it until an Arab army approached Alexandria to receive the tribute, and the Byzantine generals told the people not to resist. Realising what had happened, a furious mob attempted to stone Cyrus, but he said to them "I have made this treaty in order to save you and your children" and wept before them, which calmed the riot down. The first installment of tribute was paid on 10 December 641, sealing the surrender of Alexandria.
 * 1) Payment of a fixed tribute by all who came under the treaty.
 * 2) An armistice of about eleven months, to expire the first day of the Coptic month Paophi, i.e. September 28, 642.
 * 3) During the armistice the Arab forces to maintain their positions, but to keep apart and undertake no military operations against Alexandria; the Roman forces to cease all acts of hostility.
 * 4) The garrison of Alexandria and all troops there to embark and depart by sea, carrying all their possessions and treasure with them: but any Roman soldiers quitting Egypt by land to be subject to a monthly tribute on their journey.
 * 5) No Roman army to return or attempt the recovery of Egypt.
 * 6) The Muslims to desist from all seizure of churches, and not to interfere in any way with the Christians.
 * 7) The Jews to be suffered to remain at Alexandria.
 * 8) Hostages to be given by the Romans, viz. 150 military and 50 civilian, for the due execution of the treaty.

Death
After the siege was over, Cyrus negotiated with 'Amr to allow the Egyptians who had taken refuge in Alexandria during the war to return to their lands, but he apparently did not allow them to do so. Cyrus took the refusal deeply to heart, as it ruined his policy of gaining favour with the Copts. He had apparently hoped that, by co-operating with the Muslims, they would allow him to run Egypt independently of Constantinople. Furthermore, he heard constant bad news from Constantinople: His allies Patriarch Pyrrhus, Martina and her sons had been deposed and banished. Valentine had attempted a second revolt, which failed, so to prove his loyalty to the Emperor Constans II he struck at anyone who could be in favour of Martina and Pyrrhus. He had the Archbishop of Cyprus, Arcadius, who was far more innocent than Cyrus, charged with treason. Cyrus was terrified that he would be summoned to Constantinople for his loss of Egypt and his notorious friendship with Martina and Pyrrhus.

Thus, wracked with guilt for losing Egypt, unable to reconcile with the Copts and undo his persecution of them, and with his ambitions shattered, Cyrus fell into depression and died on Holy Thursday, March 21, 642. He was replaced as Patriarch by Peter IV on 14 July. Theodore was appointed governor of Egypt after Cyrus' death, and arranged the withdrawal of Byzantine forces from Alexandria. On September 17, 642, Theodore left Egypt and set sail for Cyprus with the last Roman troops. Then on September 29, the 11 months of armistice ended, and 'Amr marched at the head of his Arab army into Alexandria, and thus ended Roman Egypt.

Writings
Cyrus communicated with Sergius through three letters, known as the "Satisfactio," which have been preserved in the acts of the Roman Synod of the Lateran and the Sixth Ecumenical Council (Mansi, X, 1004; XI, 560, 562, 964).

In the first letter, Cyrus expressed his acceptance of the Ecthesis. The second letter described his dilemma between Pope Leo and Sergius, while the third letter narrated the conversion of the Theodosians.

One of the articles in the "Satisfactio," specifically the seventh article, states: "The one and same Christ, the Son, performs the works proper to God and to man by one theandric operation according to St. Dionysius."

Cyrus faced opposition from St. Sophronius, who died in 638 (Epistola synodica, Mansi, XI, 480), and St. Maximus, who died in 662 (Epistola ad Nicandrum; disputatio cum Pyrrho, P.G., XCI, 101, 345). They accused him of tempering with the revered text of Dionysius and introducing alterations. They also refuted his claim of support from the Church Fathers and explained that while the divine and human natures of Christ are referred to as one because they belong to the same person and work in harmony, they cannot be physically identified, as they have distinct origins. Historians hold differing opinions on how Cyrus adopted these views. Some believe he had a predisposition towards Monophysitism from the beginning, while others argue that he was influenced by Sergius and Heraclius.

Posthumously, Cyrus was condemned as a heretic at the Lateran Council of 649 (Denzinger, Enchiridion, 217, 219) and again in 680 at the Third Ecumenical Council of Constantinople (Denzinger, 238; Mansi, XI, 554).