Dalit literature

Dalit literature is a genre of Indian writing that focuses on the lives, experiences, and struggles of the Dalit community, who have faced caste-based oppression and discrimination for centuries. This literature encompasses various Indian languages such as Marathi, Bangla, Hindi, Kannada, Punjabi, Sindhi, Odia and Tamil and includes diverse narratives like poems, short stories, and autobiographies. The movement originated in response to the caste-based social injustices in mid-twentieth-century independent India and has since spread across various Indian languages, critiquing caste practices and experimenting with different literary forms.

Prominent works within Dalit literature emerged in the colonial and post-colonial period, with Jyotirao Phule's Gulamgiri, published in 1873, being a seminal work highlighting the plight of the Untouchables in India. Numerous authors, such as Sharankumar Limbale, Namdeo Dhasal, and Bama, have contributed to the Dalit literary movement, each offering unique perspectives on the Dalit experience. The Dalit Panther movement in Maharashtra and the influence of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, an advocate for Dalit rights, have played significant roles in shaping Dalit literature across India.

Dalit literature has also been instrumental in the development of Dalit feminism, with the autobiographies and testimonios of Dalit women authors emphasizing the intersection of caste, class, and gender in the context of social exclusion. Prominent Dalit women authors, such as Urmila Pawar and Baby Kamble, have shed light on the struggles of their communities, providing a foundation for understanding the complexities of caste, class, and gender in Indian society.

Early Dalit literature
One of the first Dalit writers was Madara Chennaiah, an 11th-century cobbler-saint who lived during the reign of the Western Chalukyas and who is also regarded by some scholars as the "father of Vachana poetry". Another poet from the same Jangam order, who finds mention is Dohara Kakkaiah, a Dalit by birth, whose six confessional poems survive. The origins of Dalit writing can also be traced back to Marathi Dalit Bhakti poets like Gora, Chokha Mela and Karmamela, and to the Tamil Siddhas, or Chittars — many of whose hagiographies, in accounts such as the 12th-century Periyapuranam, suggest that they may have been Dalits. Modern Dalit writing only emerged as a distinct genre after the democratic and egalitarian thinkers such as Sree Narayana Guru, Jyotiba Phule, B.R. Ambedkar, Iyothee Thass, Sahodaran Ayyappan, Ayyankali, Poykayil Appachan, and others began to articulate the sources and modes of caste oppression.

Modern Dalit Literature
According to Satyanarayana and Tharu,

Jaydeep Sarangi, in his 2018 introduction to "Dalit Voice," writes that Dalit literature is a culture-specific upheaval in India giving importance to Dalit realization, aesthetics and resistance. Dalit literature in the colonial and post-colonial period came to prominence in 1873 with the publication of Jyotirao Phule's Gulamgiri, which depicted the plight of the Untouchables in India. Since then, numerous writers have contributed to the Dalit literature movement, each offering their unique perspectives on the Dalit experience. Some of the most well-known Dalit writers include Mahasweta Devi, Arjun Dangle, Sachi Rautray, Rabi Singh, Basudev Sunani, Bama, Abhimani, Poomani, Imayam, Marku, Mangal Rathod, Neerav Patel, Perumal Murugan, Palamalai, Sudhakar, and D. Gopi. Sharankumar Limbale, a prominent Dalit writer, described Dalit literature as a "lofty image of grief" that artistically portrays the sorrows, tribulations, slavery, degradation, ridicule, and poverty endured by Dalits.

There is an emergence of new and powerful Dalit writers who are transforming the literary space with their unique perspectives and stories in recent years. One such writer is P. Sivakami, who is considered one of the most prominent Dalit writers today. Her book, "The Grip of Change" is widely regarded as a masterpiece of Dalit literature. Vijila Chirrappad, another Dalit woman writer based in Kerala, has also made significant contributions to the genre with three published collections. Her writings typically explore the challenges and issues faced by women. Dev Kumar is a well-known Dalit writer and dramatist who founded the Apna Theatre in 1992. Through his plays, he has consistently worked towards arousing Dalit consciousness. Meena Kandasamy is a renowned feminist writer based in Tamil Nadu whose work is deeply connected to the anti-caste movement.

Dalit literature in Marathi
Dalit literature originally emerged in the Marathi language as a literary response to the everyday oppressions of caste in mid-twentieth-century independent India, critiquing caste practices by experimenting with various literary forms. Subsequently, Dalit literature emerged as a remarkable phenomenon in various Indian languages. In 1958, the term "Dalit literature" was used at the first conference of Maharashtra Dalit Sahitya Sangha (Maharashtra Dalit Literature Society) in Mumbai Baburao Bagul's first collection of stories, Jevha Mi Jat Chorali (English: When I had Concealed My Caste), published in 1963, depicted a cruel society and thus brought in a new momentum to Dalit literature in Marathi; today it is seen by many critics as an epic portraying lives of the Dalits, and was later made into a film by actor-director Vinay Apte. Gradually with other writers like, Namdeo Dhasal (who founded Dalit Panther), these Dalit writings paved way for the strengthening of Dalit movement. Notable Dalit authors writing in Marathi include Arun Kamble, Shantabai Kamble, Raja Dhale, Namdev Dhasal, Daya Pawar, Annabhau Sathe, Laxman Mane, Laxman Gaikwad, Sharankumar Limbale, Bhau Panchbhai, Kishor Shantabai Kale, Narendra Jadhav, Shankar Rao Kharat, and Urmila Pawar. Shankarrao Kharat served as president of the 1984 session of Marathi Sahitya Sammelan (Marathi literary conference) held in Jalgaon.

Although the first Dalit literature conference, Dalit Sahitya Sammelan, was held in 1958 organised by Annabhau Sathe, a communist, who turned to Ambedkarite movement in the later part of his life. He is credited as the founding father of Dalit literature. Dalit literature started being mainstream in India with the appearance of the English translations of Marathi Dalit writing. An Anthology of Dalit Literature, edited by Mulk Raj Anand and Eleanor Zelliot, and Poisoned Bread: Translations from Modern Marathi Dalit Literature, originally published in three volumes and later collected in a single volume, edited by Arjun Dangle, both published in 1992, were perhaps the first books that popularised the genre throughout India 'Poisoned Bread' - the collection takes its name from a story by Bandhumadhav about Yetalya Aja, a Mahar who is forced to consume stale bread covered in dung and urine and dies as a result. Before he dies, Aja tells his grandson to get an education and take away the accursed bread from the mouths of Mahars.

In 1993, Ambedkari Sahitya Parishad organized the first Akhil Bharatiya Ambedkari Sahitya Sammelan (All India Ambedkarite Literature Convention) in Wardha, Maharashtra to re-conceptualize and transform Dalit literature into Ambedkari Sahitya, after the name of the Dalit modern-age hero, scholar and inspiration B.R. Ambedkar, who had successfully campaigned against caste-discrimination and was a strong advocate of Dalit rights. Ambedkari Sahitya Parishad then successfully organized the Third Akhil Bharatiya Ambedkari Sahitya Sammelan in 1996 and became a voice of advocacy for awareness and transformation. Since then multiple similar literary gatherings, were held in various places.

Dalit literature in Bengali
The term "charal," a corruption of the Sanskrit word "chandal," is often used as an umbrella term for Scheduled Castes, and the literature that emerged from this movement in Bengal is often referred to as "Charal literature." Some of the notable examples of Charal literature include Jatin Bala's Sekor Chhera Jibon (An Uprooted Life) and Samaj Chetanar Galpa (Stories of Social Awakening) and Kalyani Charal's Chandalinir Kobita. In Bengal, the development of Dalit literature was influenced by the leadership of Harichand Thakur, a leader of the Motua community, and the inspiration of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. The Motuas played a significant role in initiating caste consciousness and anti-caste movements in colonial Bengal, as discussed in Sekhar Bandyopadhyay’s ‘The Namasudra Movement’ and Sumit Sarkar’s ‘Writing Social History.’ The Motua faith emerged as a protest against Brahmanical Hinduism in East Bengal and has since expanded to include various lower castes marginalized by upper caste domination. These works deal with a range of themes, from the position of women in Motua religious teachings to the ethic of work preached by Harichand Thakur, the significance of Harichand's teachings in the context of the Namasudra uprisings, and the relationship between the Matua dharma and the writings of B.R. Ambedkar. According to Bandophadhay, Motua songs contain messages that aim to boost self-confidence and the collective ego of the depressed community.

However, the organized Dalit literary movement did not begin until 1992 after Chuni Kotal's death by suicide. The protests against her death led to the formation of the Bangla Dalit Sahitya Sanstha and the launch of the magazine Chaturtha Duniya, which was dedicated to promoting and circulating Dalit writings. Chaturtha Duniya, which translates to "Fourth World," refers to the world of the fourth varna of the caste system while articulating the experiences of living in a world within the third world. This magazine paved the way for several important Dalit writers in Bengal, including Manohar Mouli Biswas, Jatin Bala, Kapil Krishna Thakur, Kalyani Charal, Manju Bala, and many others. The autobiography of Dalit proletariat author Manoranjan Byapari, Itibritte Chandal Jiban, has received critical acclaim from both readers and academics, further fueling the attention and popularity of Dalit literature in Bengal. Some other Dalit journals that are active in Bengal include Adhikar, Dalit Mirror, Nikhil Bharat and Neer. The Dalit Panther movement in Maharashtra led by literary giants such as Namdeo Dhasal also played a significant role in inspiring the Dalit literary movement in Bengal. This movement yielded literature that was in stark contrast to existing literature in Bengal that took little note of social issues and concentrated on romanticism or nationalism instead.

Dalit Literature in Tamil
The development of Dalit literature in Tamil Nadu has a long history, starting with the pioneering efforts of educated Parayars, a Scheduled Caste in Tamil Nadu, in the late 19th century. Iyothee Thass Pandithar, a prominent leader among them, worked to build a new casteless Tamil society based on his research on ancient Tamil history. His re-readings of ancient Tamil history spread ideas of socialism, rationality, and modernity in colonial India. He also protested against Manudharmic Brahminism and fought for the dignity and rights of the "untouchable communities," urging them to identify themselves as Panchamars (fifth Caste). Dalit intellectuals regularly published journals like Oru Paisa Tamizhan, Parayan, Adi Dravidan, and Vazhikattovone in the early decades of the 20th century, providing a space to discuss and denounce Brahminical ideals and notions of Swadeshi ideals. These journals played a pivotal role in augmenting the sensibility and consciousness of Adi Dravida politics and identity. Adi Dravida leaders appreciated the zeal and social commitment of the Self-respect movement and urged Adi Dravidas to support it. They became a vital part of the Self-respect movement and participated in the major struggles launched by the movement.

In the 1940s, there was a communist upsurge in Tamil Nadu that inspired and influenced Adi Dravidas, who took the lead in protests organized by the communists. Dalit writers like Daniel Selvaraj, and Poomani were drawn toward Marxism, and their works represent the economic struggles of the Adi Dravida community. They established themselves more as Marxists by suppressing their caste identity. During this period, novels and short stories came to be written by Adi Dravida writers, marking the beginnings of Tamil Dalit literature. The literary movement gained prominence in Tamil Nadu during the late 1980s and early 1990s, Dalit writers in Tamil Nadu confronted issues of caste-based discrimination, social injustice, and economic disparities within their community. However, it was in the 1990s that the Tamil Dalit literary movement gained momentum. The Mandal commission report triggered communal clashes, arousing Dalit consciousness and sensibility and motivating Dalits to form a distinct caste identity. Secondly, the Ambedkar centenary celebrations held in 1992 were a driving force among Tamil Dalits, bringing to the fore Ambedkar's ideals and thoughts.

The sudden surge in Dalit literature and arts gained ground over the course of the next decade. Writers such as Sivakami, Edayavendan, Unjai Rajan Abimani, Bama, Anbadavan, K. A. Gunasekaran, Imaiyam played pivotal roles in shaping and advancing Dalit literature in Tamil. Notable works include Sivakami's "Pazhiyana Kazhidalum" (The Grip of Change) and Bama's "Karukku," the first Dalit novel in Tamil written by a woman. The annual Dalit cultural festival organized by the Dalit Athara Maiyam articulated issues and problems related to Dalits. Dalit cultural festivals were conducted in Pondicherry and Neyveli in 1992. The little magazine movement that had gained momentum throughout India in the fifties and sixties influenced the Tamil Dalit literary movement in the 1990s. This period witnessed a spurt of Dalit journals like Dalit Murasu, Kodangi (later changed to Pudiya Kodangi), Manusanga, Dalit, and Mallar Malar, which provided a platform to discuss Tamil Dalit politics and literature. Special issues on Dalit literature were also published by journals like Subamangala, Nirapirigai, Kavithasaran, Ilakku, Thinamani Kathir, Sathangai contributing significantly to the development of Tamil Dalit literature.

Dalit Literature in Punjabi
Dalit literature in Punjab has a rich and enduring tradition shaped by the contributions of notable poets across different historical periods. The roots of this literary tradition can be traced back to Bhai Jaita (1657–1704), a devoted disciple of Guru Gobind Singh, who composed the devotional epic Sri Gur Katha. In the first half of the nineteenth century, Sant-poet Sadhu Wazir Singh (1790–1859) emerged as a prominent figure, creating a body of work that delved into spiritual, social, and philosophical realms. Wazir Singh's writings challenged established Brahmanical structures, advocating for gender equality and envisioning a society liberated from hierarchical constraints. Giani Ditt Singh (1852–1901), born into a rural Dalit family, played a crucial role in the Singh Sabha movement. As the editor of the Khalsa Akhbar, he significantly contributed to Sikh intellectualism. Ditt Singh's works covered a wide range of subjects, from love-lore and Sikh traditions to history and ethics, often critiquing popular religious practices rooted in what he considered "superstitious beliefs." Sadhu Daya Singh Arif (1894–1946), born into a landless untouchable Mazhabi Sikh family, overcame educational challenges to write poetic works, including "Zindagi Bilas" and "Sputtar Bilas".

Dalit Literature in Telugu
Telugu Dalit literature has a long history, dating back to the 17th century with poets like Potuluri Veerabrahmam and Yogi Vemana, who wrote about the evils of caste and untouchability. A new generation of Dalit poets, artists, and intellectuals emerged post-independence and brought literary art into the public sphere and aided socio-political movements in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. The Communist Party’s Jana Natya Mandali played a significant role in taking messages to the masses through the tradition of oral storytelling and folk art among Dalits. Theatre forms such as Burrakatha, Yakshaganam, Oggukatha and other street plays became key instruments. This gave rise to activist-singers such as Gaddar, Masterji, Goreti Venkanna, Suddala Hanumanthu, Bandi Yadagiri and Guda Anjanna, Mittapelli Surender and Andesri. Their songs gave an uncompromising call for revolution and over time found themselves in the mainstream Telugu industry.

The tragic events of the Karamchedu massacre in 1985 not only brought the horrors of caste discrimination to light but also served as a catalyst for the collective conscience of the Dalit community. Notably, it played a pivotal role in uniting two influential Dalit intellectuals, Kathi Padma Rao and Bojja Tarakam, who assumed leadership roles within the Dalit Mahasabha in 1987. Under their guidance, the Dalit Mahasabha emerged as a powerful force, mobilizing masses to stand against caste-based discrimination and atrocities inflicted upon Dalits. This era saw the emergence of compelling Dalit poetry anthologies, including notable works such as "Padunekkina Pata" and "Chikkanaina Pata." Women writers such as Gogu Shyamala, Joopaka Subhadra, Jajula Gowri, and Challapalli Swaroopa Rani wrote prolifically as well.

The Dandora Movement launched in the 1990s by Madigas, Manda Krishna Madiga, protested against unequal treatment by Malas. Similar sentiments were also raised by other sub-caste communities such as Dakkali, Relli, Jambavas, among others.

Dalit literature in Gujarati
Dalit literature in Gujarati began to gain momentum in the mid-1970s with the launch of Puma, a literary magazine edited by Rameshchandra Parmar. This was followed by the publication of several other magazines such as Akrosh, KaloSooraj, Garud, Dalit Bandhu, NayaMarg, and Disa. The rise of Dalit literature in Gujarat can be attributed to the influence of the Dalit Panthers movement in Maharashtra. In 1975, a group of youths in Ahmedabad started publishing a magazine called Panther, inspired by the Dalit Panthers. The movement gained momentum during the state of emergency imposed by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in 1975 and the anti-reservation agitations in 1981 and 1985. Initially, Dalit writers expressed their experiences and identities through poetry in magazines such as Kalo Suraj. However, the movement soon encapsulated other forms of writing, such as stories, novels, dramas, and autobiographies. In 1981, the first collection of Dalit poetry, Dalit Kavita, edited by Ganpat Parmar and Manishi Jani, was published. Another collection called Visphot, edited by Balkrishna Anand and Chandu Maheria, was published in 1983. Asmita, a collection of poems published in the Dalit periodical Nayamarg between 1981 and 1983, was published by the Gujarat Khet Vikas Parishad in 1983.

The first Gujarati Dalit Poetry was published in a magazine in 1978, with contributions from writers such as Neerav Patel, Dalpat Chauhan, Pravin Gadhvi, and Yogesh Dave. Ganpat Parmar and Manishi Jani later published the first collection of Gujarati Dalit literature. Other notable writers in the field include Sahil Parmar, Joseph Macwan, Harish Mangalam, Pathik Parmar, Mohan Parmar, Madhukantkalpit, and B.N. Vankar. Joseph Macwan was the first Gujarati Dalit writer to receive a Sahitya Akademi award. His works often overlapped between fiction and reality and were characterized by their simplicity and sensitivity. Macwan's novel Angliyat is one of the most famous works in Gujarati literature and portrays the lives and struggles of the Vankar community.

Dalit Literature in Odia
Dalit Literature in Odia has a rich history that can be traced back to the fifteenth century. Sudramuni Sarala Dasa pioneered the social protest movement in Odisha during that time. As a Sudra by caste, he articulated the voices of the marginalized by writing in the language of the common people. His major works, the Odia Mahabharata, the Bilanka Ramayana and Chandi Purana, focused on recent events and mundane affairs of real-life situations, which was a protest against the dominance of Sanskrit in literature and the excessive concern with royal characters.

The Panchasakha poets, Balarama Dasa, Jagannatha Dasa, Achyutanda Dasa, Jasobanta Dasa, and Ananta Dasa dominated Odia literature from 1450 to 1550 AD, and also protested against Sanskrit's dominance in literature. They wrote in the language of the people and made major contributions to the use of plebeian Odia language in Odia literature. Their works, including Jagmohan Ramayan, Odia Bhagabata, Harivamsa, Premabhakti Brahmagita, and Hetudaya Bhagabata, translated the sacred books of the Hindus into the people's language. They also protested against the rigidities of life in temples and monasteries, seeking to rise above dualistic debates.

In the nineteenth century, Bhima Bhoi, a Kondh tribal poet and follower of Mahima Dharma, continued the tradition of protest literature. His works, such as the Stuti Chintamani, the Srutinisedha Gita, and the Nirbeda Sadhana, attacked orthodox rituals and customs of Odia society and sought to redefine and redesign societal norms. In 1953, Dalit Jati Sangha (Dalit League) was founded by Govinda Chandra Seth, Santanu Kumar Das, Jagannath Malik, Kanhu Malik, and Kanduri Malik. These leaders, who were also creative writers, wrote literary pieces to bring awareness among Dalits. Seth's biography of Ambedkar and Das's novels, Awhana, Vitamati, Sania, and Pheria, dealt with caste inequality and social injustice. In the 1970s and 1980s, Dalits in Odisha began asserting themselves through their writings. Bichitrananda Nayak was a pioneer in Odia Dalit writings, publishing Anirbana (Liberation) in 1972 using the term "Dalit" in several poems. Other notable writers and poets include Krushna Charan Behera. It was not until 1991, during the Ambedkar centenary celebrations, that a significant number of Odia Dalit poets and writers were inspired to write about their own histories. Educated members of the community began openly discussing caste, class, and gender exploitation in Odia society. Notable writers from this period include Basudeb Sunani, Samir Ranjan, Sanjay Bag, Pitambar Tarai, Ramesh Malik, Chandrakant Malik, Kumaramani Tanti, Supriya Malik, Basant Malik, Akhila Nayak, Anjubala Jena, Mohan Jena, Samuel Dani, Anand Mahanand, Panchanan Dalei, and Pravakar Palka.

Other Examples of literary forms

 * Dalit Hip-Hop
 * Dalit Christian Hymns

Dalit Autobiographies
In the 1960s and 1970s, Dalit autobiographies in India emerged as a powerful tool for social and political protest. Baluta, a groundbreaking autobiography by Dagdu Maruti Pawar that questioned the caste system and the social stigma associated with Dalit names, was one of the first and most impactful works. Many other Dalit writers followed suit, asserting their identity and protesting oppression through memoirs, poetry, and autobiographical fiction. Annabhau Sathe's autobiography Fakira (1972), Baburao Bagul's autobiographical novel Jevha Mi Jaat Chorli Hoti (1963), Babytai Kamble's Jina Amucha, Urmila Pawar's The Weave of my Life, Shantabai Kamble's Majya Jalmachi Chittarkatha, Omprakash Valmiki's autobiographical poetry Joothan (1997), Siddalingaiah's Ooru Keri (1995), and Bama's Karukku (1992) are among the notable writers and works. Authors such as Narendra Jadhav, Loknath Yashwant, Kumar Anil, G.K. Ainapure, Avinash Gaikwad, and Santosh Padmakar Pawar write of their achievements, while Urmila Pawar, Sushama Deshpande, Ushakiran Atram, Ashalata Kamble, Sandhya Rangari, Kavita Morwankar, and Chayya Koregaonkar explore the intersection of caste and gender.

Dalit Women's Autobiographies and Testimonios in Dalit Literature
"the testimonio is for a Dalit woman a powerful medium to protest against adversaries within and without" Dalit women's autobiographies and testimonios have significantly influenced Dalit literature by highlighting the collective experiences of individuals and communities facing caste-based oppression and discrimination. These narratives emphasize the intersection of caste, class, and gender in the context of social exclusion. Prominent Dalit women authors, have brought attention to the struggles of their communities, contributing to the development of Dalit feminism and providing a foundation for understanding the complexities of caste, class, and gender in Indian society.

Some prominent Dalit women authors and their works include:


 * Bama's Karukku (1992): This Tamil work, translated into English with the same title, highlights the issues of caste, class, and gender as important markers for social exclusion. Bama's writing has been praised for breaking taboos and giving voice to the marginalized.
 * Urmila Pawar's Aaydan (2003): Translated into English as The Weave of My Life: A Dalit Woman's Memoirs in 2008, Pawar compares her act of writing about her life with her mother's weaving of bamboo baskets, representing the pain, suffering, and agony of their experiences.
 * Shantabai Dhanaji Dani's Ratrandin Amha ('For Us – These Nights and Days', 1990): This testimonio recounts her participation in protests against British colonial authority, her arrest, and detainment in Yerwada jail in 1946. Dani was the secretary of the Nasik branch of Scheduled Caste Federation at the time, a significant accomplishment for a Dalit woman.
 * Kumud Pawade's Antasphot ('Thoughtful Outburst', 1981): Pawade emphasizes that her outburst is not emotional but analytical, examining the experiences of individuals and communities. She highlights the double exploitation faced by Dalit women in a culture based on hierarchy.
 * Baby Kondiba Kamble's Jinne Amuche ('Our Lives', 1986): Kamble's work underscores the inextricability of the individual and the collective in Dalit narratives by contextualizing her life against the backdrop of the five-decade history of the Mahar community.
 * Janabai Kachru Girhe's Deathly Pains (1992): As the first woman teacher and first woman of the Gopal community, a nomadic group, to write her testimonio, Girhe offers insight into the lives of nomadic families and their experiences of hardship
 *  'Maajhi Me' by Yashodara Gaikwad
 *  'Mala Uddhvasta Vhaychay' (I Want To Destroy Myself: A Memoir) by Malika Amar Shaik

Dalit women's testimonios have been recognized for challenging selective memory and univocal history, both in the Dalit and women's movements. These narratives function as expressions of protest, resistance, and identity formation, asserting the subjectivity of marginalized individuals and communities.