Jingtai Emperor

The Jingtai Emperor (21 September 1428 – 14 March 1457), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Daizong of Ming  and by his posthumous name as the Emperor Jing of Ming, personal name Zhu Qiyu , was the seventh emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigned from 1449 to 1457. He succeeded his elder brother, Emperor Yingzong, who had been captured by the Mongols. "Jingtai", the era name of his reign, means "exalted view". He was overthrown in a palace coup led by Yingzong in February 1457, and died a month later.

In 1449, Emperor Yingzong, upon the suggestion of eunuch Wang Zhen, personally led the army to battle against the Mongolian army of Esen Taishi. However, in the Battle of Tumu Fortress, the Ming army was defeated and the emperor was taken captive. This event caused shock and concern throughout the government and the country. In response, the court eventually elevated the emperor's brother, Zhu Qiyu, who had taken charge of government affairs during the campaign, to the throne. The former emperor, who had formed a positive relationship with Esen, was released in 1450 but did not regain his position. He was instead placed under house arrest in the Southern Palace of the Forbidden City.

During his reign, the Jingtai Emperor, with the support of prominent minister Yu Qian, worked to restore the country's infrastructure. This included repairing the Grand Canal and the Yellow River's dam system, resulting in economic prosperity and a bolstering of the country's strength.

However, after ruling for eight years, the emperor fell ill and his death was imminent in early 1457. He had not designated an heir, as his son and crown prince had died in the fourth year of his reign under unclear circumstances, possibly due to poisoning. Taking advantage of this situation, Emperor Yingzong seized control of the government in February 1457 through a palace coup. The Jingtai Emperor died a month later.

He was one of two Ming emperors who was not buried in either the Ming tombs in Beijing or the Xiaoling Mausoleum in Nanjing.

Childhood and life as Prince of Cheng
Zhu Qiyu was born on 11 September 1428. He was the second son of the Xuande Emperor, who ruled the Ming dynasty from 1425 to 1435. When the Xuande Emperor died in 1435, his eldest son, Emperor Yingzong, became the new ruler of the Ming dynasty and created Zhu Qiyu as the Prince of Cheng.

As the Prince of Cheng, Zhu Qiyu was said to have lived in Shandong (present-day Wenshang County, Jining) as an adult. He was naturally shy, weak, and indecisive, and had no desire for power. He had a close relationship with his brother, which may have been the reason he remained in the capital, even though he was old enough to move to Wenshang in the latter half of the 1440s.

Ascension
In the summer of 1449, there was growing unrest along the northern border of the Ming dynasty. In late July, reports reached Beijing that the Mongols, under the leadership of their de facto ruler Esen, had launched an attack on Datong as part of a massive invasion. Emperor Yingzong made the decision to personally lead the campaign against the Mongols, with the support of his trusted advisor Wang Zhen and a number of generals and officials.

On 3 August, Zhu Qiyu was appointed as the provisional administrator of Beijing. He was accompanied by aides who represented the most influential power groups. Prince Consort Commander Jiao Jing, the son-in-law of the Hongxi Emperor, represented the imperial family. Jin Ying, the head of the Directorate of Ceremonial and the highest-ranking eunuch in the absence of Wang Zhen, led the palace eunuchs. Minister of Personnel, Wang Zhi, represented the government, and Grand Secretary Gao Gu was the fourth aide. All major decisions were to be postponed until the emperor's return.

On 4 August, Emperor Yingzong led his army into battle. Despite a month-long campaign, they achieved no results. However, on their return journey, the imperial army was unexpectedly attacked by the Mongols on 1 September at the Tumu Fortress. The Mongols were able to defeat and scatter the imperial army. Numerous high-ranking commanders were killed, and Emperor Yingzong himself was captured.

With the approval of Empress Dowager Sun, the mother of Emperor Yingzong, Zhu Qiyu assumed control of the government on 4 September. However, the empress dowager made it clear that his authority was temporary and on 6 September, she named Zhu Jianshen, the two-year-old eldest son of Yingzong, as crown prince.

On 15 September, high-ranking civil and military officials, led by Yu Qian, petitioned the Empress dowager to install Zhu Qiyu as the new emperor. This was done in order to stabilize the government and improve relations with the Mongols by reducing the influence of the captured Emperor Yingzong. As the only adult relative of the captured emperor, Zhu Qiyu was seen as a natural choice. Initially, Zhu Qiyu rejected the proposal, but those around him saw this as a formality and he eventually accepted. On 17 (or possibly 22 or 23) September, he ascended the throne as the Jingtai Emperor. He also declared his brother as Taishang Huang (, 'Emperor Emeritus'), a title that was higher in rank but only honorary. Only one official objected to the new emperor's accession and was punished with death.

After their triumph at Tumu, the Mongols did not immediately launch an attack on Beijing, even though they likely would have been successful. Instead, they hesitated and allowed the Ming dynasty two months to recuperate from their defeat. During this time, the new Minister of War, Yu Qian, took charge of organizing the Defense of Beijing and effectively became the leader of the government even before the new emperor was appointed. The Mongols did not approach the city until 27 October, but after four days of siege, they abandoned their efforts when they realized they had no chance of victory.

The Jingtai Emperor's government refused all of Esen's attempts to pay for the release of the captured emperor and insisted on his unconditional return. The imprisoned emperor became a burden to the Mongols, so they eventually released him without any conditions. The Jingtai Emperor lacked the confidence to keep his brother free, so he confined him to the Southern Palace and cut off any contact with government officials. His fear of his brother's influence dominated the rest of his reign and influenced a cautious approach towards the Mongols.

Ministers, eunuchs, grand secretaries
Traditional historians often praise the rule of the Jingtai Emperor, particularly when compared to the corrupt and inept eunuchs who had controlled the government in the previous decade. However, it is important to note that power did not completely transfer from eunuchs to officials during his reign. Eunuchs still held a considerable amount of influence. Instead, after 1449, both eunuchs and officials collaborated to revitalize the country.

To some extent, the Jingtai Emperor's regime followed the tradition of the "Three Yangs" who ruled the empire from the mid-1420s to the early 1440s. This continuity was embodied by Wang Zhi, who held the position of Minister of Personnel from 1443 to 1457. During the 1440s, Wang Zhi was a constant opponent of Wang Zhen, but after 1449, he began to cooperate with Yu Qian. From 1451 to 1453, he was assisted in his duties by co-minister He Wenyuan, who was later replaced by Wang Ao. Yu Qian supported Wang Ao's rise, and he successfully defended Liaodong, as well as later Guangdong and Guangxi. Wang Ao remained Minister of Personnel until his death in 1467 at the age of 73. The widely respected Ministers of Personnel, along with their careful selection of capable officials, contributed to a high level of administration in the third quarter of the fifteenth century.

The ministers of the Jingtai Emperor typically held their positions for extended periods of time. The ministers of Revenue, Jin Lian ; of Rites, Hu Ying ; of Justice, Yu Shiyue ; and of Works, Shi Pu, all served throughout his reign. The leadership of the Censorate (in the years 1445–1454, Chen Yi, then Yang Shan , Wang Wen , Xiao Weizhen , and Li Shi ), as well as army commanders (Shi Heng ), and eunuchs Cao Jixiang and Liu Yongcheng , also remained constant.

Some of the Jingtai Emperor's key supporters were the eunuchs Jin Ying and Xing An. Jin Ying held significant influence in the 1430s, but eventually lost power to Wang Zhen. During the Jingtai Emperor's reign, he was appointed as head of the Directorate of Ceremonial, but was later imprisoned in 1450 for backing the return of Emperor Yingzong. Xing An then took over as head of the eunuchs and played a crucial role in negotiating the return of Emperor Yingzong and the exchange of the crown prince in 1452. Two other eunuch generals, Cao Jixiang and Liu Yongcheng, were instrumental in the military reform of 1453. However, prominent officials such as Grand Secretaries Chen Xun and Gao Gu did not support the Jingtai Emperor.

Despite having a stable personnel, the ruling group was not free from controversy. In 1451–1452, Yu Qian, the most influential figure in Beijing, had a heated conflict with Shi Heng over the abuse of power and corruption by Shi Heng and his family. The emperor was unable to resolve the dispute until Yu Qian fell ill in 1454–1455, causing him to lose much of his influence.

Military reform
In 1451, once the immediate danger had passed, Yu Qian initiated military reform. He handpicked 100,000 soldiers from the remaining troops in the Beijing area and divided them into five training divisions (, tuanying). In 1452, he added an additional 50,000 soldiers and created ten training units. He also restructured the command system of the capital garrison. Initially, command was divided between generals and eunuchs, with each of the three army camps (for infantry, cavalry, and firearms) operating independently under its own field commander. However, there was little coordination between detachments from different camps. Yu Qian placed each camp under one field commander and the entire garrison under the field marshal. He also removed the eunuchs from their supervisory role, resulting in a unified command and a greater involvement of the capital generals in managing the training camps. This new arrangement of the drill camps was unique among the various Ming command systems, as the generals in charge of training also commanded the same soldiers in battle.

After 1449, the practice of hiring soldiers for wages from the peasant and urban population became more widespread due to the shortage of men and the inefficiency of many hereditary soldiers. These hired soldiers were referred to as bing, in contrast to the hereditary soldiers known as jun.

After Emperor Yingzong regained power in 1457, Yu Qian was executed and his reforms were reversed.

Economy
In 1450, Shandong experienced a famine, and from 1452 to 1454, the provinces in northern China and the lower Yangtze River were greatly affected by heavy rains and cold weather. The drought of 1455 was followed by summer rains in 1456 in northern China. The state treasury was depleted due to providing aid to the population and dealing with tax arrears.

In 1453, the ban on using coins for trade was lifted. From the mid-1450s, illegal private coins from Jiangnan began to dominate the markets in Beijing, replacing the old Yongle coins. Although there were some proposals to address this problem by resuming state production, they were disregarded, resulting in the spread of illegal mints through unofficial networks.

After the severe floods and changes in its course in 1448, the government took urgent action to regulate the Yellow River. As a result, the river began to flow into the sea both north and south of the Shandong Peninsula. However, these changes in the river's flow caused problems with the water supply for the Grand Canal. Despite attempts to fix the issue and repairs carried out from 1449 to 1452, they were ultimately unsuccessful. In 1453, Xu Youzhen, who had fallen out of favor during the crisis of 1449 when he suggested relocating the capital from Beijing to Nanjing, presented a plan to rebuild the levees and canals. With a workforce of 58,000, he completed complex repairs to the dams and excavated hundreds of kilometers of canals within two years. His work successfully withstood the great flood of 1456 and remained in use for decades.

Traditional history portrays the 1450s as a time of intense competition between two imperial brothers, but Marxist historians emphasize the presence of class conflicts. The population was consistently dissatisfied, leading to rebellions and keeping the army occupied for much of the decade. By 1452, the uprisings in Fujian and Zhejiang had subsided. In Guangdong and Guangxi, the non-Han Chinese population (including Miao and Yao tribes) grew unchecked until Wang Ao forcefully suppressed them in 1452–1453. In 1450–52, the Miao and Yao rebelled in Guizhou and Huguang, and unrest continued in Fujian, Huguang, Sichuan, and Zhejiang in the years 1453–56. Throughout the 1450s, there were armed conflicts in Guangdong, where the authorities mobilized loyal tribes against the rebels. Non-Han Chinese groups generally rebelled against the Ming government, while Han Chinese miners and landless individuals in the peripheral regions of the provinces remained relatively calm.

Overall, the reign of the Jingtai Emperor was marked by successful reforms and the restoration of stability, thanks to the efforts of capable ministers. In the field of culture, the Jingtai era is known for the advancement of wire enamel (cloisonné) decoration, which is now referred to as Jingtai-lan (meaning 'blue [color of the era] Jingtai') in Chinese.

Succession problems, deposition and death
One ongoing political issue during Jingtai's reign was the situation of Emperor Yingzong and the matter of who would succeed him. Despite being isolated, Emperor Yingzong still had allies within the government, including Minister of Rites Hu Ying. Typically, the emperor's adversaries would have been forced to resign, but the Jingtai Emperor was hesitant to address these issues and allowed them to remain in their positions.

The crown prince had been the eldest son of Emperor Yingzong since 1449. However, the emperor eventually decided to reserve the throne for his own descendants. Through a combination of bribery and intimidation, he was able to gain enough support for his plan. On 20 May 1452, despite opposition from the grand secretaries and other officials, he created his current successor as the Prince of Yi and his son Zhu Jianji as the new crown prince. On the same day, Empress Wang was removed from her position and replaced by the mother of the heir, Lady Hang. This move, which appeared to prioritize personal interests, weakened the emperor's authority.

Zhu Jianji died in 1453 and his mother in 1456. As the emperor had no other son, a new crown prince was not chosen. Some officials, including Zhang Lun (d. 1483), Director of the Ministry of Rites, and Zhong Tong (d. 1455), a censor, suggested reinstating Emperor Yingzong's eldest son, but they were imprisoned for their suggestion. Zhong Tong and others were even flogged to death. This event sparked the ambition of courtiers and government officials to conspire in favor of Emperor Yingzong.

The plot was orchestrated by Shi Heng, Cao Jixiang, Xu Youzhen, and Zhang Yue (1393–1458). They saw an opportunity when the emperor fell ill at the end of 1456, causing him to cancel audiences and New Year ceremonies in 1457. The request for the appointment of a successor went unanswered, and the court was filled with anxiety as they prepared for the emperor's death. On the morning of 11 February 1457, the conspirators forcefully removed Emperor Yingzong from his residence and placed him on the throne, surprising officials who had come for the morning audience. Yingzong wasted no time in making changes to the government, promoting the conspirators and dismissing officials from the previous regime. Some supporters of the Jingtai regime, including Yu Qian, Wang Wen, and three high-ranking eunuchs, were killed.

The Jingtai Emperor was demoted to the Prince of Cheng and never fully recovered from his illness. He died on 14 March 1457. There is speculation that he may have been murdered. He was given the posthumous name Li (, 'Rebel') and was buried outside the imperial mausoleums at Yuchuanshan. Some officials suggested abolishing his era name, similar to the abolishment of the Jianwen era, but Emperor Yingzong did not agree. It wasn't until 1475, during the reign of the Chenghua Emperor, that the Jingtai Emperor was given a posthumous name—Emperor Gongren Kangding Jing —which was shorter than the names given to other emperors. In the mid-17th century, a ruler of the Southern Ming dynasty in Nanjing gave him the temple name Daizong.

Family
Consorts and Issue:
 * Empress Xiaoyuanjing, of the Wang clan (孝淵景皇后 汪氏; 1427–1507)
 * Princess Gu'an (固安郡主; 1449–1491), first daughter
 * Married Wang Xian (王憲) in 1469, and had issue (one son)
 * Second daughter
 * Empress Suxiao, of the Hang clan (肅孝皇后 杭氏; d. 1456)
 * Zhu Jianji, Crown Prince Huaixian (懷獻皇太子 朱見濟; 28 March 1445 – 21 March 1453), first son
 * Imperial Noble Consort, of the Tang clan (皇貴妃 唐氏; 1438–1457)
 * Li Xi'er (李惜儿)
 * Consort, of the Sun clan (妃 孫氏)